LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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[ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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THE 



PRINCIPLES 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Unfolded to Learners by a" Mew Metnoi, 



STRICTLY PROGRESSIVE ORDER, 



WITH 



Copious Exercises foe Parsing and Analysis. 



BY 

Rev. JOH:N t F. BROOKS, A. I 

JUL 25 1804 

SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS,\jf/>„ fC S *> ^<&L 

1884. % ^4£L** s * yli ^^ 



7£» 



ii 



3^1 



Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1884, 

By JOHN F. BROOKS, 

in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C. 



All rights reserved. 



H. W. ROKKER, 

Printer, Stereotyper and Binder, 
Springfield, Illinois. 



READ THIS PREFACE. 



The merits of a book are best perceived when viewed from 
the author's standpoint, and when its parts are considered in 
relation to the results which he has sought to secure. It is 
not attempted in this book to exhaust the subject of English 
Grammar. The aim is to grasp the essential principles of the 
subject, to illustrate these clearly and fully, and to furnish the 
learner an abundant supply of examples, by which he may 
cultivate his own skill, in discerning and pointing out these 
principles in parsing and analyzing. 

The practice here contemplated and provided for, will make 
the learner so familiar with all the essential features of the 
English language as to secure its correct use, and be the best 
possible safeguard against error; and will lay a good founda- 
tion for the critical study of this or any other language. 

Those who would understand how the author has accomplished 
this object, are invited to read carefully the Introduction, in 
which his method is briefly set forth, and then examine in 
detail the progress of the book. The arrangement adopted to 
furnish an easy progress to the learner is such, that a glance 
here and there at disconnected portions will give an erroneous 
idea of the character of the work. Please examine it in its 
order, and observe the easy transition provided for the pupil 
from any one topic to the next. 



INTRODUCTION 



This treatise on grammar is the result of many years' experi- 
ence in teaching this branch. It is offered with confidence for 
the thorough examination of well qualified teachers, and espe- 
cially of those who, like the author, have not been satisfied 
with any of the methods generally pursued in presenting this 
subject in books for learners. We often find matter introduced 
of comparatively little importance, to the exclusion of that 
which is essential; very often explanations given which pre- 
suppose a knowledge of what has not been taught; and uni- 
formly a want of those exercises by which a portion taught 
can be made familiar while disconnected with things not yet 
explained. 

In this book is given the clearest expression of the essential 
facts and principles of the language ; and these are presented 
with such plainness of illustration, and in an order so naturally 
progressive, that the pupil can follow the development without 
difficulty and without obscurity, and feel at every step that he 
is gaining new and clear ideas. 

The order of arrangement is not based wholly upon the 
relation of abstract principles ; but prominently upon the rela- 
tion of facts and principles to the mind of the learner. It has 
been adopted and pursued under the inquiry: What will the 
pupil most easily learn first ? What next ? and in what order 
will he meet with nothing that is not or has not been explained ? 
And the copious exercises for parsing and analysis have been 
selected and arranged so that in any exercise in its order, the 
pupil will be able to classify every word, and describe its 
properties, and tell its relations in the sentence, which has not 
been possible as exercises have been usually given. This arrange- 
ment is of vital importance to the satisfactory advance of the 
pupil. 

The grammatical terms that have prevailed for a long and 
indefinite period, in describing well known facts of the lan- 
guage, are retained, when suitable. And where different terms 
have been used by different authors for the same thing, that 



4 . INTRODUCTION. 

has been selected which seemed most suitable. In a few cases 
new terms have been adopted, or terms before little used, when 
a better explanation or more precision required them. On the 
subject of analysis, important improvement has been intro- 
duced. 

The book is intended for those who are of sufficient age and 
mental development to take up the subject as an intellectual 
study. And those scholars who cannot understand the expla- 
nations here given, so as to analyze and parse the exercises 
without much aid, have too little maturity of mind for a sys- 
tematic study of grammar. 

To secure space for fall illustration, and abundant examples 
for exercise in what is here given, this book is confined to the 
substantial frame-work of the language as contained in etymol- 
ogy and syntax. These parts are treated together, as the best 
mode of simplifying the subject and interesting the pupil. 
Although the proposition is not named in the first part, the 
definitions and explanations are given in reference to it, and 
in such manner that it will be more readily understood, when 
formally introduced. 

As far as practicable, the course is pursued of making the 
actual forms of language the subject of explanation, and of 
showing how and for what such and such forms are used, 
instead of giving first abstract definitions founded on the rela- 
tions of thought. For example, instead of defining the present 
perfect tense as that which "represents a past event as com- 
pleted in present time," and leaving the pupil to conjecture 
how many forms of words there may be, that will express such 
an abstract idea; it is at once said that "The present perfect 
tense is made by annexing the perfect participle to the present 
tense of the auxiliary have" which parts have been explained. 
Afterwards it is shown for what this tense, thus formed, is 
used. No one thinks of styling any other form of words the 
present perfect, indicative. Why not say then at once, this form 
is the present perfect tense, and give the learner a concrete 
idea upon which to fix his mind? 

Very extensive exercises are given, because they are indis- 
pensable for making the things taught well understood, and so 
familiar in their various relations as to be well remembered. 
Copious lists of examples are always found in our best arith- 
metics, and in grammar they are still more important, for lines 
of distinction between things to be discriminated are often less 
apparent than in mathematical studies, and the properties of 
elements sometimes interlace, as in all subjects of natural 
science. Hence, more practice is necessary to make all their 
aspects understood. 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

Those definitions and leading principles which need to be 
retained in the exact language of carefully formed statement, 
are printed in distinct type. These should be committed to 
memory. The other parts of the book should be intellectually 
mastered, and the learner required to give the matter in his 
own language, and to show in correct parsing and analysis that 
it is well understood. 

The merits of the book depend chiefly on the success with 
which the plan is carried out. This can be known only by 
examination in detail, or better, by use in the class room. All 
teachers and friends of education are invited to give it a thor- 
ough examination, and no objection will be made to any candid 
and friendly criticism. 

To the Teacher in particular. — Of any teacher who 
intends to use this book, the author has one important request 
to make. It is, that he acquaint himself fully with the order 
and language of the book; and that with beginners he pursue 
no other order, and use no other essential terms, than those 
here found; and that all his explanations be in the line of 
those here given. He must not use the definition, "A verb is 
a word that expresses being, action or state," and stopping 
there, expect the pupil to distinguish a verb by it. For the 
definition embraces the nouns, being, departure, existence, as 
truly as it does be, depart, exist. The part of the verb first 
taught in this book is the finite verb. Keep the mind of the 
pupil to the point that it is a word by which something is 
declared. If it is dropped out of a sentence there is nothing said. 
. Do not expect the pupil to distinguish a transitive verb, by 
the statement that it requires an object to complete its meaning, 
when he has no idea what is meant by the object of a verb. 
He will think any noun after the verb its object, especially if 
he has learned to repeat, "A noun is the name of an object." 
And he will of course call the verb, to be, transitive, since we 
say, John will be a scholar. Let him constantly apply the 
definition, "A transitive verb declares an action performed upon 
something or in producing something." The exceptions are so 
extremely rare, they may be individually noticed. 

The definitions of this book are prepared with the utmost 
care. And the proper sphere of oral explanation is in illustrat- 
ing and applying them, without adopting others. 

Again, the order of the book must be followed in its regular 
course, until all its essential principles are understood. It is 
prepared to give the pupil an easy and intelligent progress in 
this manner. To expect it to accomplish its mission in any 
other order would be as absurd, as to expect a wedge to enter 
timber readily with the thick end forward. 



6 INTBODUCTION. 

It is important also to remember that sure speed comes of 
hastening slowly, making each portion familiar before advanc- 
ing to the next. 

If the teacher will use the book according to its adaptation, 
the author will assure him success with every industrious pupil 
of fair talents. But if he bring in any peculiar explanations of 
his own not in harmony with these, or attempt to follow these 
in a different order, the author disclaims any responsibility in 
his failure. After familiarity with the terms and explanations 
here given, is attained, any other terms, by other authors, may 
be easily understood, if they are at all intelligible. 

The teacher's first object must be to understand the book 
himself. He may then need to be watchful lest previous habit 
should lead him unawares to employ other terms and illustra- 
tions in a manner confusing to the mind of the learner. But, 
to enable him to use the book understanding^, the following 
brief sketch of the arrangement, in the first part, is presented. 

A brief Explanation of the Arrangement adopted in the 
First Portion of the Book. 

A commencement is made with nouns ; their classes, gender, 
and number are given; which can be well understood without 
relation to any other words. And an exercise is given for the 
pupil to distinguish these properties only. The adjective is 
then introduced, which can be well understood in its relation 
to the noun, and in its classes and degrees of comparison, with- 
out a knowledge of other parts of speech. And an exercise is 
given to distinguish nouns and adjectives and their simplest 
properties, and with nothing else. 

The first exercise that includes the verb consists of short 
sentences with regular intrans. verbs, 3d pers. sing, and plu. 
of the pres. tense, and with nouns and adjectives only. It has 
in it nothing which has not been explained. 

The next exercise embraces the same parts of transitive and 
intransitive verbs, after the distinction between these classes 
has been pointed out. And the exercise following embraces 
the present and past tenses. But the attention of the pupil is 
still confined wholly to reg. verbs in the 3d person, with nouns 
and adjectives only. The distinction of person, however, in the 
grammatical sense, is not to be named to the pupil as yet. 

Next in order, the use of those conjunctions which are 
usually employed to connect words and phrases, is explained ; 
then adverbs with full illustration of their use ; then the prepo- 
sition is illustrated in the use of the prepositional phrase. 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

After an explanation of what is meant by grammatical person, 
the personal pronouns are introduced, and "the different persons 
of the verb in the same tenses before used, but of reg. verbs 
only. After each introduction of a small portion of new matter, 
an appropriate exercise is given to make it well understood and 
familiar. 

Following the preceding, the verb, to be, is introduced; and 
its forms in the present and past tenses ; and its peculiar use 
is explained; after which the participles of reg. verbs common 
form are given. Then a few irregular verbs, in the same 
tenses, and their participles ; and the distinction between the 
regular and irregular conjugations. After these, are introduced 
the auxiliary verbs and their conjugation by themselves, as 
auxiliaries, which are to be committed in form, not in theory. 

Having now the auxiliaries, the present and past tenses, and 
the perfect participles of both reg. and irreg. verbs, the way is 
prepared for the systematic explanation of all the forms, modes 
and tenses of every verb. The precise manner in which all 
this is carried out, so as to introduce frequently copious exer- 
cises for the learner, and yet to leave nothing unexplained, 
will be seen from an examination of the book. 

This brief explanation is made, that the teacher may under- 
stand the nature and necessity of the arrangement adopted, 
and use the book in its proper order, until his pupils have 
mastered what it contains. 

The advantage of a good arrangement is in pursuing it. 

As a class advances to short sentences, the blackboard should 
be freely used, in illustrating the properties and relations of 
their several parts. Use the method suggested in Models for 
Beginners, found near the close of the book. 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. In the use of language we employ not only different 
words, but different kinds of words ; and as these different 
kinds of words are different parts or portions of speech, they 
are called Parts of Speech. A noun is one Part of Speech; 
an adjective, another ; a verb, another, etc. 

It is the object of this book to explain all the different Parts 
of Speech, and the essential principles which regulate their use. 

NOUNS. 

2. The name of any thing is a Noun. 

Any word by which we designate any thing of which we 
speak, or wish to name in speaking, is a noun. George, 
William, Sarah, are nouns, for they are the names of persons. 
Springfield, St. Louis, Ohio, are nouns, because they are names 
of places. Horse, lion, fox, are nouns, for they are words or 
names by which we designate certain animals. Book, chair, 
table, are nouns, because they are words by which we designate 
certain articles which we use. All names are nouns. It is not 
the things themselves that are nouns, but the words by which 
we name things. Nouns are words, not the things which 
words stand for. 

3. Among things which we see, some have life and some 
are without life. Herbs, trees, and all plants that grow out of 
the ground, have what is termed vegetable life. Creatures that 
breathe, and have feeling, possess animal life. All other 
visible things are without life. 

4. But there are many things invisible, of which we speak, 
and for which we must ha\e words to name them ; as, air, 
wind, thought, spirit, feeling. An invisible existence having life 
is a spirit ; as, God, soul, angel. 

5. So also the names of qualities, conditions or actions, that 
we attribute to things, are nouns. We say the rose has beauty, 
there is stillness in the air, the horse made a jump. Beauty, 
stillness and jump are nouns. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise I. 

6. Let the pupil tell, among the following nouns, the names of things which 
have animal life, vegetable life, or no life, and any name of an action, state or 
quality, 

1. hat, tulip, horse, beauty, shoe, peach, man, cat, slate, 

2. bonnet, coat, apple-tree, Auburn, fruit, stillness, wind, 
8. quail, Cicero, grass, bird, buffalo, Eome, journey, peony, 

4. bucket, fox, violet, Ox, hyssop, fig-tree, barrel, mountain, 

5. anger, river, ant, trout, hatred, salmon, pebble, arbor, 

6. Jerusalem, currant, horse-chestnut, virtue, ivy. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

7. Nouns are divided into two classes, proper and common. 
Nouns are also divided into two other classes, abstract 

and concrete. 

8. A proper noun is a name used to distinguish one 

individual thing; as, James, Alton, Missouri. 

It may be the name of a 'person, animal, place, or any 
thing to which we give a name to be its individual name; as, 
Paul, Ponto, Roan, Mt. Carmel. 

9. A common noun is a name equally applicable to 

any one of a class of things; as, horse, dog, tree; or to any 

portion of a material mass ; as, water, wheat, iron. 

Dog is a term that we apply to any one of a certain kind 
of animals, and is therefore a common noun. But if I call 
my dog Ponto, that is a term by which I designate him alone, 
and distinguish him from all others ; Ponto is a proper noun. 

10. An abstract noun is the name of some action, office, 
state or quality which belongs to something other than itself; 
as race, journey, rest, beauty, stewardship. 

11. A concrete noun is the name of any existing sub- 
stance, taken with its attributes ; as, man, horse, rose. 

Concrete nouns include the names of all objects around us 
which are not the attributes of something else. Abstract 
nouns are the names of attributes. The distinction between a 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 

concrete and abstract noun is the distinction between the rose and 
its beauty, between the tree and its tallness, the mountain and 
its height, between the bird and its color or flying. It is the 
distinction between the horse and his agility, strength or fleet- 
ness ; between the cloth and its color, coarseness or fineness. 

Divisions of time ; as, year, month, week, day, should also be 
included among abstract nouns. They are attributes of our 
idea of duration. 

12. All proper nouns are concrete nouns, and all abstract 
nouns are common nouns. 

And all nouns that are neither proper nor abstract are both 

common and concrete.* 

Among nouns that are both common and concrete, the fol- 
lowing sub-classes should be noticed. 

13. A patrial noun is one derived from the name of a 

town, city, or country to denote one or more of its inhabitants ; 

as, from America we derive A merican ; from Illinois, Illinoisan; 

from Boston, Bostonian,- from Scotland, Scot or Scotchman. 

1. Patrial nouns should include also appellations derived 
from the names of persons to denote those who follow or imi- 
tate them ; as, a Pythagorean, a Wicliffite, an Arminian. 

14. A collective noun denotes a collection of living 
individuals considered together as one thing ;t as, school, assem- 
bly, army, herd. 

In one school are many individuals, so in one assembly and 
in one army. 

15. A material noun denotes matter in bulk, that is, a 

substance existing in an aggregate or mass ; as, water, wheat, 
silver. 



*Note.— The teacher may notice that a few nouns do not class strictly either as 
concrete or abstract: such as eternity and infinity, and also duration, time, and 
space, in their most comprehensive significations. They do not express concrete 
existences or abstract qualities; but rather intuitive ideas, originated in the mind 
by its own action. 

The divisions of time and space, however, may be considered as attributes, 
being parts of a general idea, and their terms may be called abstract nouns; as, 
day, week, month. 

fThe adjective, living, in this d-efinition, distinguishes collective nouns from 
such words as heap, pile, bundle. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A material noun may be applied to any part of the existing 
substance which it denotes, as a small lump of a certain white 
substance is chalk, and all that the earth contains of the same 
substance is chalk. Of such a substance we do not use the 
plural "chalks," for we cannot count up the individuals which 
compose it ; but if we would know its quantity, we must meas- 
ure or weigh it. 

16. All proper nouns and all patrial nouns should begin 

with a capital letter. 

1. While all patrial, collective and material nouns are both 
common and concrete, a multitude of common concrete nouns 
belong to neither of these classes; as, horse, wolf, bird, house, 
field, city. 

Exercise II. 

17. Tell the class of each noun; i. e., tell whether it is proper, abstract, patrial, 
collective, material, or simply common concrete. 

Also correct any error in the use of capitals in several of the last lines. 

1. Kufus, girl, dog, country, Jacob, pen, paper, kingdom, 

2. Susan, Milton, poet, Cowper, city, Chicago, state, county, 

3. river, house, garden, Fairfield, hermit, sand, lake, Ontario, 

4. rice, bookseller, Johnson, rashness, party, author, Dickens, 

5. island, Ireland, school, empire, France, violence, Cincin- 

6. nati, cowardice, camp, "Camp Butler," Norwegian, ceme, 

7. tery, field, company, Oakridge, ivory, Polander, Silver, sea, 

8. mediterranean, ocean, atlantic, Kentucky, lexington, Farmer, 

9. plowman, President, Statesman, jackson, New-Yorker, Lin- 

10, coin, Lawyer, irishman, winter, Job, Maria, machine, webster- 

11. orator, peter, Student, Ship, rogers, italy, Snake, hudson. 

GENDEK. 

18. Gender, as a term in grammar, denotes a distinction 
in words in regard to sex. 

19. There are three genders, masculine, feminine, and 
neuter. 

20. Nouns denoting males are of the masculine gender; 
as, man, king. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 

21. Nouns denoting feniales are of the feminine gender; 
as, woman, queen. 

22. Nouns denoting things which are neither male nor 
female are of the neuter gender ; as, house, book, pen. 

Words equally applicable to males or females, as, parent, 
child, are frequently called common gender. But such nouns 
are not to be regarded as forming a fourth gender, but may 
be regarded as masculine or feminine according to the con- 
nection in which they are used. 

23. The masculine and feminine genders alone, denote the 
sexes, and these have different forms to show which sex is 
intended. 

The distinction is made : First, by different words ; as, boy, 
girl; brother, sister; Second, by difference of termination ; as, 
host, hostess; hero, heroine; and Third, by a composition of 
words; as, land-lord, land-lady; man-servant, maid- servant. 



Exercise III. 

24. Tell the class of each noun, as in the preceding exercise; also its gender, 
and in which of the three ways the distinction of sex is indicated. 

1. book, William, aunt, John, man, tree, sound, woman, boy, 

2. hawk, Mississippi, brother, queen, uncle, army, animal, 

3. father, emperor, priest, poetess, empress, instructor, 

4. priestess, George, neighbor, hat, Mary, lion, barn, he- 

5. goat, lioness, cousin, apple, scholar, Columbus, friend, 

6. Sock, enemy, Isabella, land-lord, corn, congress, iron, April, 

7. Thursday, Jew, soldier, merchant, Edward, Briton, stroke, 

8. delay, Fanny, Frenchman, softness, seamstress, water, 

9. German, sugar, Louisa, maid-servant, vastness, mother, 

10. Indian, wickedness, tigress, sugar, robber, milliner, car- 

11. penter, Nelson, Jackal, piety, work, plow, elephant, sailor, 

12. hunter, eagle. 

NUMBEE. 

25. Number as a term in grammar denotes a distinction 
between words meaning one thing and those meaning more 
than one. 

26. There are two numbers, singidar and plural. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

27. A noun that denotes an individual thing is said to be 
in the singular number, and is called a singular noun; 

as, tree, bird, house, box. 

28. A noun that denotes more things than one is said to 
be in the plural number, and is called a plural noun; 
as, trees, birds, houses, boxes. 

FOEMATION OF THE PLUEAL. 

29. Rule 1. — The plural number of nouns is formed from 
the singular, as a general rule, by adding s, without making 
an additional syllable ; as, sing, tree, plu. trees; and so, bird, 
birds; hat, hats; snake, snakes. 

1. This commonly occurs when the sound of s or z will 
coalesce with the last syllable of the word, as in the examples 
above. 

2. The added s has its proper sound when that sound will 
coalesce most readily; as in hats, caps; otherwise it has the 
sound of z; as in birds, dogs. 

3. The proper hissing sound in fact occurs only after the 
sounds of p, t, f, and ih aspirated ; as th in pith. 

30 n Rule II. — If the sound of s or z w 7 ill not coalesce with 
the last syllable, a syllable in es is added; as, box, boxes; 
church, churches; kiss, kisses; race, races; judge, judges. 

1. In this case, if a final e silent is found in the singular, 
it is dropped in adding es for the plural, as in the last two 
examples. 

2. The additional syllable is required only after the sound 
of s, z, x, j, sh, and the Eng. sound of ch, as in church. 

31. Exception 1. — Final y preceded by a consonant is 
changed into i and es added to form the plural; as, fly, flies; 
duty, duties. 

Exception 2. — Final o preceded by a consonant commonly 
requires the addition of es to form the plural, without making 
another syllable ; as, cargo, cargoes; hero, heroes. 

But some words of this class are asually written with s only, 
among which are zero, canto, quarto, duodecimo, octavo, solo, 
piano, memento. 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



15 



1. Nouns ending in y or o preceded by a vowel, form their 
plurals regularly according to the first rule ; as, key, keys; delay, 
delays ; folio, folios. 

Exception 3. — Sixteen nouns form their plurals by changing 
/ or fe into ves without another syllable. They are the fol- 
lowing : 

Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, 
thief, ivife, wharf, wolf. 

Their plurals are beeves, calves, elves, halves, etc. 

1. Other nouns ending in / or fe form their plurals regularly 
by adding s, as stripe, stripes; grief, griefs, including all nouns 
in ff except staff, wmich is also regular in compounds ; as, 
flagstaff's, and when it signifies a definite body of military offi- 
cers, the general's staff; the staffs of several generals. 

Exception 4. — The following nouns obey no existing rule in 
our language in forming their plurals. The first ten derive 
their peculiarities from the Anglo-Saxon, the others from other 
languages : 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


ox, 


oxen. 


basis, 


bases. 


man, 


men. 


beau, 


beaux. 


woman, 


women. 


crisis, 


crises. 


tooth, 


teeth. 


analysis, 


analyses. 


foot, 


feet. 


hypothesis, 


hypotheses. 


mouse, 


mice. 


genus, 


genera. 


louse, 


lice. 


die, 


dice. 


goose, 


geese. 


penny, 


pence. 


child, 


children. 


index, 


indices. 


brother, 


brothers, 


phenomenon, 


phenomena. 




or brethren. 


proboscis, 


proboscides. 



Eem, — Die, when it means a stamp, penny, when it means a 
coin, and index, when it means a table of contents, have their 
plurals formed according to the preceding rules, dies, pennies, 
indexes. 

2. Various authors use numerous other words from foreign 
languages, whose plurals they form according to the languages 
from which they are taken. But a sufficient number is here 
given for the present advantage of the pupil. 

32. Neither proper nouns nor material nouns have regularly 
any plural. 

1. When we speak of the twelve Caesars, we use Csesar as 
a common noun. 

2. When the merchant says, " I have three very fine sugars," 
he changes the material noun into one simply common con- 
crete, denoting varieties. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. There are a few plural forms that are material nouns, of 
words that have no corresponding singular of the same import ; 
such as, ashes, embers, dregs, oats. 

4. Some abstract nouns ; as, duty, virtue, vice, have plurals 
in frequent use, but plurals of most nouns of this class seldom 
occur, if at all ; as, of cowardice, darkness, obstinacy, sloth, de- 
corum, idleness, turpitude. 

5. Some nouns have the same forms in both numbers ; as, 
we say one sheep, or ten sheep; one deer, or ten deer. And so 
of trout, salmon, vermin, cannon, bellows, means, and various 
others. 

6. Some nouns are used in the plural only; as, annals, 
archives, ashes, clothes, dregs, embers, goods, nippers, snuffers, 
shears, scissors, tongs, etc. 

Exercise IV. 

33. Tell of each noun, whether it is singular or plural, and how its plural is 
formed; which have no plural or no separate form for the plural, and which 
have no singular. 

1. hair, desk, drum, phenomena, duty, essay, epitaphs, 

2. flower, hypothesis, crutch, furnaces, drudge, David, 

3. copper, histories, pieces, oatmeal, Philadelphian, roses, 

4. Italian, hero, lens, folio, letters, mine, miners, might, 

5. negroes, obelisk, darkness, elements, envies, epistle, road, 

6. flamingo, gold, beaux, grammar, Austrian, address, basket, 

7. ashes, blossom, biscuit, buttons, Xenophon, zinc, zone, 

8. papers, philosophies, plows, potatoes, swine, quietness, 

9. rudder, riches, foot, sciences, sheep, paragraph, poetry, 

10. archives, Bostonian, barley, turnkey, beef, child, conduct, 

11. date, defence, decrees, Englishman, deaconess, deception, 

12. debility, decease, disease, kindred, king, knock, knot, 

13. Spaniard, knowledge, truth, knives, London, Madison, 

14. fox, obstinacy, question, money, Scot, shears, race. 

POSSESSIVE FOKM OF NOUNS. 

34. Nouns have a change of form to denote possession ; as, 
father's house, brother's horse. .This is called the possessive 
form. 

Note to the Teacher.— The teacher is requested to use the term possessive 
form, in regard to nouns, and not possessive case, and not to apply the term 
case, at all. to nouns with beginners. See § 168. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 

35. The possessive form of nouns is produced from the 

simple form by adding an apostrophe and the letter s, or to 

plurals ending in s, the apostrophe only ; as, girl, possessive 

girl's; bird, possessive bird's; the plural possessives of the same 

are girls', birds'. 

The apostrophe is in shape a comma, placed a little above 
at the right of the last letter of the original word. 

1. The natural position of the possessive form is before 
another noun which denotes the thing possessed ; as, boy's hat, 
girl's bonnet, lions' prey. 

Notice, if we write the words thus, lion's prey, it means the 
prey of one lion ; but if we place the apostrophe after the s and 
write lions' prey, it means the prey of more than one lion. 

2. The apostrophic s in the singular usually coalesces in 
pronunciation with the last syllable, but if this is impracticable 
it makes an additional syllable as if with an e before it, whether 
that e belongs to the written word or not ; as, mouse's ear, ox's 
hide, sphinx's head, a, fish's fin. 

3. The irregular plurals that do not end in s take an s after 
the apostrophe ; as, men's employments, children's plays. 

Exercise V. 

36. Tell all the properties of class, gender, and number of the following 
nouns, and the possessive forms, and why each is written as it is, and correct 
any errors in the last four lines. 

1. Aaron's beard, bankrupt's debts, barbers' shops, beavers' 

2. dam, beggar's petition, camel's hump, duck's back, sun's 

3. rays, Harriet's parasol, fishes' eyes, tailor's needle, lions' 

4. prey, elephants' tusks, printers' ink, scholars' pens, 

5. beauty's charms, men's hands, carpenters' work, journey- 

6. men's wages, Doctor's bill, Peter's rabbits, hens' eggs, 

7. beaux' scarfs, teeth's enamel, heroes' exploits, Henry's 

8. gloves, bards's songs, nieces paintings, mouse' nest, 

9. babys toys, women cares, ox's horns, birds wings, serpent 

10. poison, adder tongue, gnat bite, bee's stings, bees' sting, 

11. Solomons temple. 

Note.— How many stings has one bee? 

—2 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ADJECTIVES. 

37. An adjective is a word used to describe or define the 
meaning of a noun ; as, ivarm day, dark night, this man. Here 
warm describes day, dark describes night, and this defines man, 
that is, points out what man is meant. 

38. Adjectives are divided into two general classes, de- 
scriptive and definitive. 

39. A descriptive adjective denotes some quality or 
attribute joined in expression with the noun; as, good men, wild 
geese, obedient children. 

40. Descriptive adjectives are again divided into proper and 

common. 

41. A proper adjective is a variety of descriptive ad- 
jectives^ so called because it is derived from a proper noun. 

It is often derived from the name of a place ; as, Roman 
from Borne, German from Germany, British from Britain, 
French from France. 

1. The same word may be used at one time as a patrial 
noun (§ 13) and at another as a proper adjective. For we say 
a German to denote a native of Germany, and German customs 
to denote the Customs which prevail in Germany. But fre- 
quently the noun and adjective are different ; as, Briton for an 
inhabitant of Great Britain, and British customs for the customs 
which prevail there. In like manner, Dane, Spaniard, Scot, 
Pole or Polander, are patrial nouns, while Danish, Spanish, 
Scotch, Polish,, are proper adjectives. 

2. Proper adjectives may also be derived from the names of 
persons ; as, Newtonian, Wasliingtonian, Shake sperian. 

3. A proper adjective should always begin with a capital 
letter. 

42. A common adjective is a descriptive adjective not 
derived from a proper noun ; as, good, frugal, industrious, happy. 

Thus we say good books, frugal man, industrious mechanics, 
happy children. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

Exercise VI. 

43. Tell the adjectives in the following examples, and whether they are 
proper or common, and correct all the errors in regard to capital letters, also 
describe the nouns as heretofore. 

1. fine apples, sweet cider, British opinions, true men, hard 

2. wood, brittle glass, small pins, wild animals, french 

3. politeness, Dutch industry ; ripe, yellow pears - ; beautiful, 

4. green leaves ; brave polanders, crazy People ; large, wild 

5. geese ; obedient children, Siberian snows, bad luck, 

6. studious james, immense deserts, swiss heroism; mild, 

7. pleasant air; juvenile studies, old pens, heavy cannon; 

8. sour, unripe, Isabella grapes ; broad, green pastures ; 

9. scotch plaid, red tape, admirable behavior; elegant, 

10. arabian horses; ruinous conduct; long, wearisome 

11. journeys. 

44. A definitive adjective designates relation or num- 
ber concerning the noun to which it belongs ; as, this book, some 
boys, other persons, ten pens. 

In the sentence, This book is small, that book is large ; this 
and that are definitive adjectives, and point out which book is 
meant. 

In the sentence, Some boys in the class are idle but the other 
boys get good lessons, some and other are definitive adjectives. 
Some shows the relation of the idle boys to the class as being 
only a part ; and other shows the relation to the class of the 
boys with good lessons, that they are not the ones that are idle. 
In the phrase, ten pens, ten expresses a definite number of pens, 
and answers to the definition of a definitive adjective. 

45. It is usual and convenient to speak of the following 
Sub-classes of definitive adjectives ; viz., Articles, demonstra- 
tives, distributives and numerals. 

46. There are two definitive adjectives, an and the, which 
are called articles. 

An drops its consonant n before a word beginning with a 
consonant sound, and becomes a; thus we say an ox, but a cow. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The pupil should notice that an and a are the same word, only formed differ- 
ently in different cases, for the sake of greater ease in pronunciation. 

1. With the word hour, since its h is not sounded, if this 
article is used, it immediately precedes a vowel sound, and must 
be written an. But in the word union, although the vowel u is 
the first letter written, there is the sound of the consonant y 
before it in pronunciation, hence we say a union and a useful 
book. So in all cases of words beginning with a long u if it 
takes the accent, but before a word beginning with u short, as 
unkind, an must be used ; as, an unkind man; an may be used 
before long u or a vocal h if the accent falls on a subsequent 
syllable. 

47. An or a is called the indefinite article, and points 

out one thing of a kind, without denoting any particular one ; 

as, a man, an ox, thus speaking the words may apply to any 

man, or any ox. 

1. The indefinite article is used with nouns of the singular 
number only. 

48. The is called the definite article, because by its use 

we indicate some particular thing or things spoken of, or referred 

to ; as, the man or the men, the ox or the oxen. 

1. It may be used with any nouns in the singular or plural 
number. 

49. The definitive adjectives, this and that, these and those, 
are called demonstratives ; because they point out with more 
definiteness than the others the things to which they relate ; 
as, this child, that book, these men, those soldiers. 

50. The definitive adjectives each, every, either and neithe r 

are called distributives ; because they refer to two or more 

things taken singly or one at a time. 

Either usually means one or the other of two, but may mean 
one or another of any number. Neither means not one nor the 
other of two or of any number. Each denotes the individuals 
of any number taken separately ; as, the emperor distributed 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

to each soldier a reward. Every denotes all the individuals of 
any number greater than two, taken separately ; as, every boy 
in the class recited perfectly. 

51. The numeral adjectives embrace all those defini- 
tives that express exact number. 

They are of three kinds, cardinal, ordinal and multiplicative. 

52. The cardinal numerals express how many ; as, one, 
two, three, four, Jive. 

53. The ordinal numerals express which one in a series 
is meant ; as, first, second, third, fourth, fifth. 

54. The multiplicative numerals express how many 
times a thing is taken ; as, single, double or twofold, treble or 
three-fold, quadruple or four '-fold, quintuple or five -fold. 

55. There are other definitive adjectives, that do not belong 
to any of the varieties mentioned ; as, both, certain, divers, else, 
enough, former, latter, last, much, such, no, only, own, same, sundry, 
whole, yon, yonder, and what and which when they are joined to 
nouns. 

1. Also all suchuas denote situation merely, without express- 
ing quality, should be included among definitives ; as, inner, 
outer, upper, lower, etc. 

56. Sometimes one noun is employed to describe another 
noun, and thus becomes an adjective, or better designated as a 
noun used for an adjective ; as, rose buds, summer fruits, winter 
apples. 

57. It frequently happens that a descriptive adjective modi- 
fies not a noun simply, but the idea expressed by another 
adjective and noun together ; as, we say, a small wooden bowl. 
Here small does not modify howl separately ; we do not wish to 
say small bowl; it may not be small in respect to china bowls ; 
but among those termed wooden, we designate it as small. The 
noun bowl is modified by the adjective ivooden, and this union 
of noun and adjective is modified by small. 

Such a usage may be designated as an adjective modifying a 
phrase. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 



Exercise VII. 

58. Tell the definitive adjectives, and to which sub-class any one belongs. 
Describe other adjectives and nouns as before. 

1. an old servant, beautiful gardens, both arms, the 

2. same book, ripe cherries, each finger, musical 

3. instruments, Egyptian lily, every villain, "divers 

4. sorts" — Ps. 78 : 45, various ancient coins, "sundry 

5. times," . the lady's airy apartments, strong accent, 

6. a classical academy, the Austrian army, four cadets, 

7. every severe affliction, two busy actors, any virtuous 

8. action, all agreeable emotions, either hand, yon 

9. graceful oak, an exterior garment, the eastern horizon, 

10. twelve plums, a pewter cup, the ship's lower deck, 

11. the British steamer, a four-fold division, few cattle, 

12. Henry's five rabbits, the fifth military company, a 

13. five-fold leaf, the fourth finger, a triple cord, 

14. quadruple damages, the teacher's first class, Mary's 

15. former lesson, the white, inner bark, an interior circle, 

16. juvenile books, the latter days, the last judgment, 

17. Norwegian weather, many crimson dahlias, much 

18. standing grain, no coarse, disagreeable company; 

19. one tall, square obelisk ; an only son, torrid zone, 

20. the rough outer rind, which prisoner, the western sky, 

21. the top sails, a long, wearisome task; the sun's spots. 

59. Let the pupil select, from the names of things he knows, twelve or more 
nouns, and apply adjectives to them, and tell what kind of adjectives he uses. 

COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

60 Many adjectives admit of different forms to express 
different degrees of quality or quantity. 

These different forms are called degrees of comparison, 
of which there are three, the positive, comparative and superla- 
tive. 

61. The positive degree is the simple form of the adjec- 
tive unchanged, expressing its import without increase or dim- 
inution ; as, ripe, hard, opulent; as when we say, ripe fruit, hard 
stone, opulent men. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

62. The comparative degree is formed by adding er to 
the positive, or by placing the word more before it, expressing a 
greater degree of the quality than belongs to something else 
referred to ; as, riper fruit, harder stone, more opulent men. 

63. The superlative degree is formed by adding est to 
the positive, or by placing the word most before it, expressing 
the greatest degree of the quality among things referred to ; as, 
ripest fruit, hardest stone, most opulent men. 

64. Observe that in adding er and est, if the positive ends in 
silent e, it is dropped ; as, ripe, riper, ripest; and if it ends in y 
preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into i before er and 
est; as, dry, drier, driest; happy, happier, happiest. 

65. Most monosyllables form their comparison in er and 
est, and some dyssyllables when the word thus formed can be 
easily pronounced ; as, pretty, prettier, prettiest; common, com- 
moner, commonest. 

1. But most words of two syllables and all of more than 
two syllables should be compared by more and most. And 
words of one syllable can be so compared when the sound is 
agreeable ; as, wise, more wise, most icise; ripe, more ripe, most 
ripe. 

Rem.— More and most in this usage are really adverbs modifying the adjec- 
tive, and may be so parsed. But it should be noticed that they are synonimous 
in signification with the endings er and est, and apply the same import to a 
multitude of adjectives with which those endings cannot be employed. 

Q6. There is also what is called descending comparison, 
formed by placing less and least before the positive ; as, wise, 
less wise, least wise; wealthy, less ivealthy, least wealthy. 

67. The following adjectives form their degrees of compari- 
son irregularly : 

good, better, best ; little, less, least ; 

bad, worse, worst ; much or 



more, most. 
many 

1. Some adjectives admit the ending, ish, to express a less 
degree of quality than the proper signification of the positive ; 
as, coldish, whitish, blackish, latish. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This form prevails in colloquial usage rather than in dignified 
composition. Not many adjectives will admit it with perfect 
elegance. Hence it is not usually considered as one of the 
regular degrees of comparison. 

68. Some adjectives, when employed in their strict sense, 
do not admit of comparison, because the attributes which they 
express are invariable and do not admit of increase or diminu- 
tion ; as, equal, level, square, round, straight, full, perfect, and 
many others. For, if anything is strictly perfect, it cannot be 
more perfect. But many such adjectives are sometimes com- 
pared, when not taken in their strictest signification ; as, " Our 
sight is the most perfect of all our senses." 

69. Proper adjectives do not admit of comparison. And 
with most of the definitive adjectives, including all the numer- 
als, it is inadmissible. 

1. But the words few, many, and much are compared; as, 
few, fewer, fewest; many or much, more, most. And adjectives 
denoting situation often admit of an irregular and defective 
comparison ; as, upper, uppermost; rear, rearmost; northern, 
northernmost. 

Exercise VIII. 

70. Tell the degrees of comparison, and how formed, and the properties of 
nouns and adjectives as before. 

1. a rich man, some richer men, a longer road, the most 

2. delicious ruit ; the finest, ripe peaches ; a warmer day, 

3. the highest mountain, tall John, most wonderful stories, 

4. sweetest grapes, taller boys, a more diligent scholar, the 

5. most diligent scholars, greener pastures, a stronger man, 

6. the largest hat, bad boys, the worse boys, those worst 

7. boys, best boys, a little kitten, a big cat, the least child, 

8. old Tabby, many children, a level plain, the warmest coat, 

9. a round ball, a less ball, a perfect globe, least child, a 

10. better scholar, the best soldier ; a poor, lame servant ; the 

11. happier family ; a most industrious, happy school ; the 

12. happiest people ; the most affectionate, happy friends ; the 

13. most villainous rats, a flowery field, a most elegant rose ; 

14. a fine, large horse ; the oldest, wisest statesman ; an older 
J 5. son, a younger daughter, the dearest child, a double 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 

16. harness, a three-fold cord, strong animals, the third son, 

17. more gloomy day ; a dark, terrible night ; a most bois- 

18. terous wind, more heavenly charms, good boy, the 

19. outer edge, the uppermost room, the inner circle. 

71. Let the pupil select twelve or more nouns to which he 
can apply adjectives in their degrees of comparison. And 
having written them with their adjectives, tell the properties of 
both nouns and adjectives, as they have been explained. 

VERBS. 

I^^The Teacher will please consider the note below. 

PEELIMINAEY EEMAEKS AND DEFINITION. 

72. The verb is the most important of all the Parts of 
Speech. It appears under more forms, and is employed in 
more ways, than any other. 

As a noun is the name of any thing about which we speak, 
so the verb is the leading word in setting forth what we wish to 
say about that which the noun names. 

Note tor the Teacher.— In treating of the verb a different course is taken 
from any heretofore pursued; and yet all the usual nomenclature that seems ap- 
plicable is retained. The definition that "A verb is a word that expresses being, 
action, or state," so often found in our school grammars without further expla- 
nation, is no aid to the pupil, in distinguishing verbs. He at once inquires, in 
thought, if not otherwise. Does not the word action express action? Why then 
is it not a verb? Assured that it is not, he finds no aid from the definition to 
enable him to tell a verb. Others say, "The verb is a word by which some- 
thing is affirmed." This is much better and aids the pupil in many oases But 
does he always find this applicable? Does he readily apply it in such sentences 
as the following? Have you wronged your friend? He is told that affirm is in- 
tended to apply "in expressing command or inquiry." But is it the best word 
to express these several conceptions? The word declare appears to be much 
more appropriate. A leading definition of declare is to make known.— Webster. 
It may also signify to affirm, and from the breadth of its signification is belter 
adapted to our purpose. We can say, we declare a question, a command, a 
supposition, or an affirmation, without passing beyond its authorized significa- 
tions. And may say intelligibly, " A finite verb is a word by which something 
is declared." 

But this does not include the infinitives or participles, which are truly parts 
of the verb. And no single sentence will give to the learner an idea of all The 
uses of the verb. The definition in the text, referring the act, state, or being 
expressed, to some subject, is deemed the best possible. But there is still a 
necessity, that the different uses be separately illustrated. 

The teacher is requested to consider carefully the mode of presentation here 
given, and try it well in the class, before deciding against it. And in explaining 
the uses of the finite verb, employ the word declare after the manner of the 
book. And avoid, with beginners especially, all language that' does not harmon- 
ize with the train of thought as here presented. 

Observe that the preliminary remarks and general statement, here given, are 
not intended co teach the particular features of the verb; but only to give such 
a general conception of what is to be learned as may be practicable, at first 
view; and a general idea of some terms which will be of advantage in explain- 
ing particular parts. From the statements and explanations which follow, there 
will be no difficulty in acquiring particular and precise ideas. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The prominent use of the verb is to declare some action or 
state of a thing named, which thing is called its subject; and 
in this use, the verb is called the finite verb. But certain 
forms derived from its root, express the action or state as an 
assumed attribute, after the manner of an adjective; and are 
called participles. And some forms express the action or state 
in such a manner, that its expression may be used as a noun, 
naming that about which another verb may make a declaration. 
These forms are either infinitives or gerunds. 

The general definition of a verb may be given thus : 

73. A verb is a word that expresses the action, state or 
being of its subject. 

But in the several uses of the verb, it has different relations 
to the subject. These relations appear in various degrees of 
distinctness, and are not always obvious to the learner. To 
secure the utmost clearness, in treating of this important Part 
of Speech, it will be considered and illustrated in its four 
different uses ; to wit, as a Finite verb, a Participle, an Infinitive, 
and a Gerund. 

And these will be denned and explained separately. 

GENEBAL ' STATEMENT. 

74. Let it be borne in mind that the parts employed in 
these several uses are all derived from the same root, or ground 
form, partake of the same signification, and may be modified 
in the same manner; but, that they distinctly differ in their 
relations to other parts of the sentence than their own modifiers. 

Each verb is found under a great variety of forms. Some 
are termed general forms, because they give character to others. 
And some are termed specific forms, because they are subordi- 
nate to the general. The specific forms furnish modes, tenses, 
numbers and persons of the finite verb. 

There are also three leading parts of every verb, called the 
principal parts, from which all other parts are formed, and to 
which even the general forms are subordinate. A distinction 
in the manner of forming the principal parts, classes verbs in 
two divisions, called the regular and irregular conjugations. 
Verbs of the former are called regular verbs, and those of the 
latter, irregular verbs. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

With this general view of the verb, and of certain terms em- 
ployed, the pupil will be prepared to understand the explanation 
of particular parts, and the allusions which may be made to 
these general divisions. And if allusion is made to the conju- 
gation of a verb, let him remember that 

75. A systematic arrangement of the parts of a verb is 
called its conjugation. 

THE FINITE VERB. 

76. A finite verb is a word by which something is 
declared. 

Rem.— This division of the verb is called finite because it is limited to an agree- 
ment of number and person with its subject. 

That of which something is declared is called the subject 
of the verb ; as, Farmers work ; Scholars learn. 

Here the word work is a finite verb, because it declares what 
the farmers do, and farmers is the subject, for it is the farmers 
of whom something is declared. And for the same reason learn 
is a finite verb, and scholars is the subject. These verbs like 
many others declare action performed by the subject. One 
declares action of the body ; the other, action of the mind. 

In the declaration, "The houses remain," remain is a finite 
verb, because it declares something about the houses ; but it 
does not declare action, it declares the state or condition of the 
houses. 

77. A finite verb may declare action or state. 

Rem.— The word state is here used, as it often is in grammar, to denote the 
condition or circumstances of any thing. 

78. In the preceding examples, the nouns which are the 
subjects of the verbs are all in the plural number. But the 
subject of a verb may be singular. We can say, The farmer 
works, The scholar learns. And it will be noticed that the 
verb changes its form,, as well as the noun which is its subject, 
but in a directly opposite manner. An s which was attached 
to the noun to make it plural, is now dropped to make it sin- 
gular, and an s is attached to the verb to make it singular. And 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in general the same change which makes a plural noun from a 
singular, makes a singular verb from a plural, which plural is 
the root of the verb. 

2. The rules for the formation of plural nouns (§29-31), 
with the first two exceptions, are equally applicable to the 
formation of singular verbs from their roots. 

These rules apply to all verbs except the verb, to be, in the 
form adapted to declare present action or state, without an aux- 
iliary. 

79. The form of the verb appropriately connected with a 
plural noun is a plural verb, and that appropriate to a singular 
noun, a singular verb. 

80. The root of the whole verb is that word from which 
every other part is produced, either by changes in the root itself 
or by accompanying words called auxiliary verbs. 

81. The root of a verb may always be found by declar- 
ing a present action or state with any plural noun as subject. 

Teachers instruct, scholars improve, The boys fish. In these 
examples the words instruct, improve, fish, are the roots of so 
many different verbs, from which may be produced the forms, 
instructs, instructed, have instructed, will instruct; improved, had 
improved, etc., etc., which forms are to be considered hereafter. 

In the manner described may be found the root of every verb 
except the verb to be, which being the most irregular of all 
verbs, is not introduced at present. 

82. The words have, will, had, employed in the forms just 
given, and a few other words often employed in the same man- 
ner, are called auxiliary verbs according to the following 
definition : 

Def. — An auxiliary verb is a word used with other verbs 
to aid in forming their different parts. 

Agreement of Verb and Subject. 

83. A singular subject must have a singular verb, and a 
plural subject a plural verb. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Exercise IX. 



84. Tell the nouns and verbs, and whether they are singular or plural, and by 
what change the noun becomes plural or the verb singular. Tell which word is 
the subject of the verb (§ 76), and describe the adjectives. 

1. The young man plows. 2. The merchants trade. 
3. These mechanics labor. 4. This pupil studies. 5. The 
younger child plays. 6. The louder sound echoes. 7. The 
coldest seasons change. 8. That friend replies. 9. The gyp- 
sies wander. 10. The children delay. 11. The servants com- 
plain. 12. The next neighbor's apples ripen. 13. The most 
tyrannical king abdicates. 14. The federal soldiers advance. 
15. Those more cowardly men retreat. 16. Those civil wars 
progress. 17. Yonder mighty cannon roar. 18. The veteran 
ambassadors intercede. 19. The darkest clouds accumulate. 
20. Each man removes. 21. The friends converse. 22. The 
fire blazes. 23. A bee buzzes. 24. Most beautiful roses bloom. 
25. The weaker army capitulates. 26. The old hen clucks. 
27. An arithmetic class ciphers. 28. The bells chime. 
29. The first recitation commences. 30. The better plan suc- 
ceeds. 31. Those most beautiful, little chickens peep. 
32. That more elastic ball bounds. 33. The hottest water 
boils. 

EXEECISE IN CONSTEUCTION. 

85. Supply a noun as subject to each of the following verbs, both in the sing, 
and plu. changing the form of the verb when necessary to agree with the subject. 
Use only nouns for the subject; nothing else that can make a subject has been 
explained. 

Eemain, adhere, agree, brighten, burrow, chirp, disappear, 
differ, emigrate, encamp, howl, tremble, lounge, lunch. 



VERBS TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 

86. Verbs are of two classes, transitive and intransitive. 

Note to the teacher.— Do not use the word case in regard to nouns, but sub- 
ject, object and possessive form; nor the term person in respect to nouns or verbs at 
present, nor require scholars to tell any property of a word before it is explained 
in the book. G-uard your own mind in this respect, if accustomed to parse in the 
old way. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

87. A transitive verb is one that may be used to declare 
an action performed upon something or in producing something, 
and will admit the name of that thing after it, without an inter- 
vening word. 

Rem.— Or without any other word intervening than an article, which is not 
considered in this case. This last part of the definition may be omitted in common 
application, and applied as a test when necessary. 

88. The word denoting that which the action is performed 
upon or in producing, is called the direct object of the verb. 

ILLUSTEATION OF TEANSITIVE VEBBS. 

89. The man chops wood. Chops is a transitive verb, be- 
cause it declares an action performed upon wood, and wood is 
the direct object. 

1. The boys create a disturbance. Create is a transitive 
verb, because it declares an action performed in producing some- 
thing, and disturbance is the direct object. 

2. The girls danced on the floor. Danced is not a transitive 
verb, for although it declares an action performed upon the 
floor, in a certain sense, it will not admit the noun floor after 
it without an intervening word. We cannot say, The girls 
danced the floor. 

90. An intransitive verb declares a state or condition 
of the subject, or such an action as cannot be said to be per- 
formed upon, or in producing any thing outside of the subject ; 
as, The travelers repose, The car departs. 

Repose is intransitive because it does not declare an action, but 
simply a state or condition. Departs is intransitive, because, 
though it declares an action, that action is confined to the sub- 
ject itself; it is the car alone in which the action appears, and 
to which alone it appertains. 

91. Many verbs are transitive in one signification, and 
intransitive in another. The verb move is intransitive when we 
say, The men move, meaning that they are not standing still, 
but transitive when we say, The men move the goods. In one 
case we denote a motion in the men themselves only, in the 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

other that they produce motion in the goods. So improve is 
intransitive when we say, The patient improves, meaning he is 
getting hetter; and transitive when we say, The young man 
improves his knowledge, meaning that he makes a good use of it. 

Pupils should learn to distinguish such cases, and call a verb transitive or 
intransitive according to its signification in each case. 

92. A very few verbs which do not declare action at all, are 
classed with transitive verbs, because they admit a direct object 
after them in the same manner as those which declare action. 

These verbs are, contain, have, lack, need, possess, resemble, 
and perhaps a few others ; as, The vessel contains water, Some 
sheep have horns, Horses lack horns, Laborers need food, Some 
men possess wealth, The daughter resembles her mother. 



Exercise X. 

93. Tell the transitive and intransitive verbs, subject and object, and point 
out the properties of words as before.* 

1. Heat melts wax. 2. The snow thaws. 3. Fire burns 
wood. 4. Edward loves a little play. 5. The fever returns. 

6. That steam whistle produces a terrible, sharp, shrill noise. 

7. The ox alarms the little boy. 8. The bright morning sun 
appears. 9. Strong oxen plow the most turfy ground. 10. The 
more active boys hasten the sheep. 11. A most furious wind 
impels the flying snow. 12. Ahorse neighs. 13. The stronger 
laborers perform more work. 14. Every industrious, frugal 
farmer thrives. 15. The farmer's field yields a plentiful crop. 

16. The angry dog growls. IT. Hatters manufacture boys' 
hats. 18. The faithful nurse gathers the little children's clothes. 

17. Cold water quenches the weary men's thirst. 20. The sick 
man's fever abates. 21. Thrifty trees yield fine, large fruit. 
22. A young apple tree yields the largest apples. 23. The 
beautiful flowers fade. 24. Strong drink injures the drinker's 
eyes. 25. Drunkards' eyes betray drunken habits. 26. All 
persons dislike rude conduct. 27. The snow dissolves. 28. The 
sun dissolves the snow. 29. The cold congeals the water. 



*Note to the Teacheb.— While the teacher will observe that all the verbs 
here are 3d pers. present tense, the pupil has no concern in this exercise with 
person or tense, and in the next with two tenses onlv, and not at all with 
person. Let the pupil's attention be confined entirely to what has been explained. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. • 

30. The water congeals. 31. The hardy blacksmith works tough 
iron. 32. Youth's joys depart. 33. The reckless son's bad 
conduct grieves the father's heart. 34. The soldiers' brave 
exploits deserve the general's praise. 35. An Almighty Creator 
governs this world. 36. All good, christian people obey God. 
37. Joseph's courage fails. 38. The busy bees work. 

EXEKCISE IN CONSTEUCTION. 

94. Give an appropriate noun for subject to each of the fol- 
lowing verbs, and for object when the verb is transitive : Cir- 
culate, mourn, besiege, blame, leak, advise, aid, agitate, oppose, 
quiver, turn, deride, molest, disturb, arrange, derange, load, 
unload, confine. 



PRESENT AND PAST TENSES. 

95. Tense denotes a distinction in the forms of the finite 
verb, in relation to the time of the action or state declared. 

Rem.— The present, past, and other tenses of the verb, in their relation to 
each other, will more fully appear in the arranged conjugations hereafter. 
What is stated here is in perfect consistency with the general arrangement. 

96. The present tense includes those forms of the finite 
verb which are appropriate to declare present action or state. 

"While the present tense is the appropriate form to declare 
present action or state, it is frequently used to declare that 
which occurs or is true at all times ; as, Fire burns wood, Ani- 
mals breathe air. 

All the examples of the verb yet given belong to the present 
tense. 

97. The past tense in the regular conjugation is formed 

from the root of the verb by the addition of ed; as, from the 

root learn, we make the past tense learned; from love, loved; 

from tarry, tarried. 

If the root ends in silent e, it is dropped in adding ed, if it 
ends in y preceded by a consonant the y is changed to i. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 38 

1. If the sound of t or d will coalesce with the last syllable 
of the verbal root, the ed unites with that syllable in pronuncia- 
tion, adding only the sound of t or d according as one or other 
will coalesce ; as, finish finished, harass harassed, trace traced, 
vex vexed, where the sound of t is added ; and love loved, tarry 
tarried, learn learned, judge judged, where the sound of d is 
added. 

2. But w r hen the sound of t or d will not coalesce in the last 
syllable of the root, ed adds a syllable with its own proper 
sound : as, hate hated, deride derided, collect collected, dread 
dreaded. 

The additional syllable is pronounced only when the root ends 
in the sound of t or d. 

A General Rule in Adding Syllables. 

98. Monosyllabic words, and w T ords accented on the last 
syllable, if ending in a single consonant preceded by a short 
vowel, double the final consonant, in receiving any termination 
beginning with a vowel ; as, dot dotting dotted, dig digging diggeth 
digged, begin beginnest beginning. 

99. A verb seldom ends in ed in the present tense. When 
the present does end in ed we know it to be present by its being 
the appropriate form to declare present action, and because 
another ed must be added to denote past time ; as, The agents 
deed the land to-day ; or, The agents deeded the land yesterday. 
Seed, need, heed, succeed, are regular verbs of this description. 

100. A verb in the past tense, with few exceptions, and 
always when the subject is a noun, has the same form in the 
singular and plural ; as, The boy learned, The boys learned. 

101. Import. The past tense is the appropriate form of 
the verb to express an action or state indefinitely past. 

Exercise XI. 

102. Tell the tense, and by what changes the past is made, and the other 
properties of all words as before. 

1. The brave soldiers gained a remarkable victory. 
2. Samuel learned a difficult lesson. 3. Those prisoners 
lamented such misconduct. 4. The foreign travelers returned. 
-3 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. The boy returned the friend's book. 6. Any good scholar 
deserves praise. 7. These studies delighted all the pupils. 
8. All writers use some abbreviations. 9. A voracious reader 
peruses many books. 10. Neither garment pleased the 
young lady. 11. Piety promotes happiness. 12. Elegant 
writers use no vulgar expressions. 13. That visitor departed. 
14. The high waters retarded the work. 15. Industrious 
mechanics acquire valuable possessions. 16. Those travelers 
completed a long journey. 17. Many young men cherish 
vain hopes. 18. All the sailors abandoned the ship. 19. The 
base villains deceived those honest travelers. 20. The 
gardeners weed the garden beds. 21. The weary toilers 
needed more assistance. 22. Some early settlers possess 
large estates. 23. The dishonest carrier appropriated the 
money. 24. That boy deserves most severe punishment. 

EXEKCISE IN CONSTEUCTION, 

103. Give in writing an appropriate noun as subject to 
each of the following verbs, and an object when the verb is 
transitive. Express the same both in the present and past 
tenses, and in the singular and plural number. 

Affirm, accept, accomplish, acknowledge, clothe, collect, defy, 
check, chastise, betray, borrow, moan, chain, cheer, bubble, 
dismiss, languish, obtain, obey. 

The Conjunctions, And, Or, Nor, Both — and, Either— or, 
Neither — nor. 

104. Conjunctions are words used simply to connect 
other words, phrases, or parts of a sentence. 

The words, and, or, nor, and the couplets, both — and, 
either — or, neither — nor, are the conjunctions commonly 
used to connect words and phrases. 

105. Examples for Illustration. (Conjunctions in 

italics.) 

1. John and James love study. 2. Both John and James 
love study. 3. John or James loves play. 4. Either John 
or James loves play. 5. Neither John nor James loves work. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. , 35 

106. In the second example, we use the couplet, both — and, 
to connect the same two words, James and John, which are con- 
nected by and only in the first example. The words both — and 
make no other connection than is made by and alone, but make 
it with more particularity. They have always one or more 
words between them. 

107. Either — or is used in like manner instead of or simply ; 
as in the fourth example. And neither — nor is the same as not 
cither — or; as in the fifth example. 

108. The words either and neither have been before intro- 
duced as distributive adjectives, § 50. 

When employed as adjectives, they are joined with nouns. 
But here they only connect words or parts of a sentence. 

109. Conjunctions which have a mutual relation to each 
other, as both — and, either — or, neither — nor, are called correlative 
conjunctions. 

110. If two or more nouns connected by and or both — and 
are subjects of the same verb, that verb must be plural; as, 
Eufus and Walter enjoy a warm room. 

111. If two or more nouns connected by or, either — or, or 
neither — nor, are subjects of the same verb, that verb must 
agree in number with the noun nearest to it ; as, Henry or the 
rabbits amuse the children ; The birds or the monkey amuses 
the children. 

112. Obs. When more than two nouns are connected by and 
or or, the conjunction is commonly expressed between the last 
two only. 



Exercise XII. 

113. Tell the conjunctions and what elements they connect, i. e., whether 
they connect verbs, subjects, objects, or adjectives. Also describe all the proper- 
ties of each word as they have been explained. 

1. The pigs and the poultry destroy the garden. 2. The 
sailors toiled and struggled. 3. The police captured two 
thieves and one burglar. 4. The skillful and industrious 
gardeners raise vegetables, flowers, and shrubbery. 5. Both 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

John and William returned. 6. The impotent man walked 
and leaped. 7. The inhabitants burn coal and wood. 

8. Those bakers furnish both white and brown bread. 

9. Rhoda or Kate prepares breakfast. 10. Children acquire 
learning or waste the golden hours. 11. Farmers work oxen 
or horses. 12. Mary and Susan preferred white or blue 
ribbons. 13. Either music or painting delights the young 
ladies. 



ADVERBS. 

114. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, adjective, 

or other adverb, in respect to time, place, manner, cause, intensity*, 

or assurance. 

From the following classified examples will be seen what 
kinds of words are adverbs, the classes of ideas which they 
express, and the manner in which this Part of Speech is used. 
Italic words in the examples are adverbs. Let the pupil tell 
what word each adverb modifies, or the meaning of what other 
word it affects. 

EXAMPLES FOR ILLUSTRATION. 

115. I. — Adverbs of Time. — These answer to the questions, 

When ? How often ? How long ? as, 

The boy studies now. The man arrived to-day. Yesterday 
the soldiers departed. The lazy man never works. Kittens 
often play. 

116. II. — Adverbs of Place answer to the questions, 

Where? Whither? Whence? as, 

The travelers stopped here. The cavalry advanced thither. 
The soldiers departed thence. The family tarry within. The 
astronomer looks upward. Water flows downward. 

The term intensity and the term degree are both used to denote what is 
here intended. The tormer is chosen to avoid any confusion in the mind of the 
learner with " degrees of comparison." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 

117. III. — Adverbs of Manner answer to the questions, 
How ? In what way ? as, 

The scholars behaved well. The invaders fare ill. Some 
children act foolishly. The horse traveled fast. The lady 
dressed extravagantly. 

118. IV. — Adverbs of Cause answer to the questions, 

Why ? For what reason ? as, 

The lame man limps necessarily. The prisoners constrainedly 
accompanied the officer. The criminals departed perforce. The 
second party unavoidably pursued the same road. 

119. V.— Adverbs of Intensity answer to the question, 

How much ? or, In what degree ? 

They are employed chiefly to modify descriptive adjectives, 
or other adverbs, to express the degree of quality intended ; but 
may also modif} 7 verbs ; as, A very wise man. Too little food. 
A voice scarcely audible. An extremely remote star. The bat- 
talion advanced too rapidly. The ship labored intensely. 

120. VI. — Adverbs of Assurance relate to the degree of 
certainty or uncertainty intended in a declaration. They answer 
to the question, With what persuasion of its truth, is the declara- 
tion made ? as, 

Truly, the Heavenly Father bestows innumerable blessings. 
Some men, doubtless, believe strange stories. Possibly, the 
travelers missed the road. Perhaps, the frost sundered those 
rocks. Sprightly children, surely, love play. Probably, no 
inhabitants occupy that dreary island. 

121. The words yes and yea, no and nay, are usually 
termed adverbs, and belong to this last division. But their 
manner of use is peculiar. They are used chiefly in answering 
questions, and express an affirmation or negation of what is 
inquired for. And thus used, each embraces the import of a 
declaration in itself ; and hence is said to be used independently ; 
as, Do you play the violin? Yes: That is, I do play the violin ; 
or, no: I do not play the violin. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

122. The word, not, is another adverb of peculiar import. 
It modifies a verb to the extent of reversing the meaning of a 
declaration, and making it opposite to what it- would be without 
this little word. In the expression, The ship moves not, the 
words not only fail to assert the motion of the ship, but they 
assert the directly opposite. 

123. k few words are used both as adjectives and adverbs ; 
as, little men, more men, most men. In these phrases little, 
more and most are adjectives. But in the following sentence : 
The idle boy works little, hunts more and plays most, the same 
words are adverbs ; because in the former case they modify 
nouns, in the latter, verbs. 

124. Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by annex- 
ing ly; as, faithfully from faithful, gratefully from grateful, 
brightly from bright. But not all words ending in ly are adverbs ; 
lonely and lovely are adjectives; as, a lonely man, a lovely 
woman. 

125. Some adverbs whose signification admits of increase 

or diminution, are compared like adjectives. 

A few of one or two syllables are compared by the addition of 
er and est; as, soon, sooner, soonest; long, longer, longest. But the 
greater portion, and nearly all adverbs in ly, are compared by 
more and most; as, brightly, more brightly, most brightly; ill, 
more ill, most ill. 

126. The following adverbs are irregularly compared : 

Well, better, best. Much, more, most. Badly or ill, worse, 
worst. Far, farther, farthest. Little, less, least. Forth, further, 
furthest. 

Exercise XIII. 

127. Tell when the same word is an adjective and when an adverb, applying 
the definitions of adjectives and adverbs. § 33, and § 114. 

1. A little trifle. The boy studies little. 2. Some apples 
ripen early. Early apples. 3. The scholars acquired those 
long lessons perfectly. 4. The patient children study very long. 
5. A longer road still remained. 6. The weary pilgrims trav- 
eled longer. 7. John worked the longest arithmetical example. 
8. The resolute Charles persevered longest. 



ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 39 

Exercise XIV. 

EMBRACING DIFFEBENT CLASSES OF ADVEBBS INDISCBIMINATELY. 

128. Tell of what class each adverb is, and what it modifies. And of other 
words the part of speech and properties as heretofore. 

1. The storm raged then fearfully. 2. The brothers and sisters 
always lived together very pleasantly. 3. The ladies expect 
visitors to-morrow. 4. A thousand black-birds flocked together 
there. 5. The soldiers marched forward. 6. The enemy 
retreated backward. 7. The eagle soars aloft. 8. The hawk 
sailed round and round. 9. Now the scholars study constantly. 
10. The swallows darted continually, here and there. 11. Most 
people expect happiness hereafter. 12. Small children need 
food often. 13. The witness affirmed truly. 14. The firemen 
applied water vigorously. 15. The heat soon diminished. 
16. Prompt exertions, probably, saved the house. 17. The 
lamp burns brightly. 18. The angry brothers part asunder. 
19. The eager and thoughtless children rush headlong. 20. The 
busy bees and industrious ants labor unremittingly. 21. Wise 
men always exercise great care, and perform each action 
thoughtfully. 22. Those gold-hunters certainly entertain a 
very confident expectation. 23. Perchance, the result sadly dis- 
appointed fond hopes. 21. Yes, truly, the expensive preparations 
and toilsome labors realized no adequate returns. 25. Conse- 
sequently, the new-comers departed suddenly and sadly. 
26. Neither high expectations nor great exertions always secure 
a satisfactory reward. 27. The miners toiled both early and 
late, fared poorly, lodged rudely, and, finally, received very little 
gold, and an entirely insufficient remuneration. 

EXEECISE IN CONSTEUCTION. 

129. Supply an appropriate adverb in each of the following sentences: 

1. The sun dissolves the snow. 2. The buffaloes departed. 
3. Those little kittens love play. 4. Henry studies. 5. 
Louisa and Henrietta recite good lessons. 6. The new scholars 
arrived. 

130. Give in writing an appropriate noun as subject to each of the following 
verbs, in both the present and past tenses, and an object when the verb is 
transitive; and modify the verb with an appropriate adverb. 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. love, dislike, benefit, chew, believe, blind, hate, celebrate, 

2. charm, open, chasten, diffuse, digest, clean, disdain, 

3. embark, elevate, occupy, order, occur, owe, serve, relieve, 

4. relish. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

131. A preposition shows the relation between a noun, 

or pronoun, and some other word which is modified by this 

relation ; as, 

The lady walks through the garden. The bird flies over the 
house. Here through and over are prepositions. Through shows 
how the lady walks in respect to the garden. And over shows 
how the bird flies in respect to the house. 

132. The noun or pronoun thus connected is termed the 

Object of the preposition. 

By the relation thus formed, the noun and preposition 
together modify the word with which the connection is made. 
This we call a prepositional modification. 



133. 



LIST OF PKEPOSITIONS. 



abroad, 


before, 


excepting, 


since, 


about, 


behind, 


for, 


through, 


above, 


below, 


from, 


throughout, 


according to, 


beneath, 


in, 


till, 


across, 


beside, 


into, 


to, 


after, 


besides, 


notwithstanding 


, toward, 


against, 


between, 


of, 


towards, 


along, 


betwixt, 


off, 


under, 


amid, 


beyond, 


on, 


underneath, 


amidst, 


by, 


out of, 


. until, 


among, 


concerning, 


over, 


unto, 


amongst, 


contrary to, 


past, 


up, 


around, 


down, 


regarding, 


upon, 


as to, 


during, 


respecting, 


with, 


at, 


ere, 


round, 


within, 


athwart, 


except, 


save, 


without. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

184. The preposition commonly stands just before a noun 
and before its adjective, if any precedes the noun. But the 
prepositional modifier, composed of noun and preposition, most 
frequently follows the word modified. 

135. In the examples that have been given the prepositional 
phrase modifies a verb; but it may also modify an adjective or 
noun. The mother anxious about the child implored assistance. 
Here the phrase, about the child, modifies the adjective anxious, 
to show concerning what the mother was anxious. The fire in 
the city alarmed the citizens. The phrase, in the city, modifies 
the noun fire, to show about what fire the declaration is made. 

136. Many prepositional phrases express the same meaning 
that may be expressed by an adverb. The boy walks in haste. 
The boy walks hastily. The man moves with deliberation, — 
deliberately. 

Others discharge the functions of an adjective; as, a process 
in law, — a legal process. A voyage on the sea, — a sea voyage. 
Fields in green, — green fields. 

137. The phrase with of is frequently equivalent to the 
possessive form of the noun; as, The temple of Solomon, — 
Solomon's temple ; The crown of the king, — the king's crown. 

Sometimes the same idea may be expressed by the possessive 
form of the noun, by a prepositional phrase, or an adjective; as, 
The sun's light, — the light of the sun, — solar light. The king's 
proclamation, — proclamation of the king, — the royal procla- 
mation. 

But these forms are seldom so precisely equivalent, that one 
can, in all cases, be substituted for the other. And sometimes 
they are entirely distinct in signification. A senator's choice is 
not always the choice of a senator. 

Exercise XV. 

138. Tell the prepositions and prepositional phrases, and what they modify. 
And parse as heretofore directed. 

1. Various wild beasts live in the forest. 2. Some men 
travel about the world continually, and among all nations. 
3. The widow lives in a little cottage, beside the river, above 
the mill. 4. Those strangers proceeded aboard the ship and 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sailed to Liverpool. 5. Formerly people traveled in four-horse 
coaches. 6. Now, the greater number travel on the railway. 
7. In early times, in this State of Illinois, men traveled, some- 
times during the whole day, across one prairie. 8. In those 
days, all travelers crossed the Mississippi at St. Louis in a 
horse-ferry-boat or in a skiff. 9. Afterwards, passengers, 
carriages, and teams with heavy loads crossed at the same 
place in a steam-ferry-boat. 10. Now, in this year 1884, 
the railway trains cross the river at that place on an iron 
bridge. 11. Henry followed along the road, after the wagon. 
12. Every industrious man pursues some occupation, according 
to circumstances. 13. Those travelers gazed from the top of 
Mt. Blanc upon the clouds below the mountain. 14. Thick 
clouds sailed athwart the sky, over the beautiful valley and 
green hills, below the spectators. 15. The hunter lives in a 
little cabin of round logs, with a roof of bark, behind a huge 
rock, and amid terrific mountains. 16. The funeral procession 
moved sadly from the church, past the parsonage, through 
the avenue between the lawn and the lake, into the place for 
the burial of the dead. 17. Those self-confident neighbors err 
as to some matters. 18. Notwithstanding the vigilance of the 
guard, the enemy passed the fort and crossed the river, out of 
sight. 19. The officers with spy-glasses watched constantly 
the many vessels off the coast. 20. Two steamers receded 
beyond the reach of the telescope. 21. Eegarding some nearer 
vessels, the men entertained great fears. 22. Some persons 
expected an attack against the fort. 23. Amidst many fears, 
hope still survived. 24. Before the close of the day, all vessels, 
except one gun-boat, disappeared under full sail, toward the 
open sea. 25. "All the prophets and the law prophesied until 
John." 26. Concerning one occurrence, the witnesses testified 
contrary to expectation. 27. Ere the close of the day, the 
pedestrians walked throughout the whole city. 28. Some 
weary stragglers continued amongst the curiosities of the town, 
till dark. 29. Betwixt hope and fear, the benighted wanderers 
hastened onward towards the hotel, and unto a place of rest. 
30. The children of the school enjoy the teacher's picnic 
greatly, underneath those lofty elms, within that enchanting 
grove. 31. Many friends besides the two guests, accompanied 
the cavalcade. 32. No individual, excepting the sick man, 
remained beneath the curtains of the tent. 33. That nimble 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 

squirrel skipped through the fence, hastened up one tree and 
leaped down another, and disappeared round a heap of brush. 
34. Since those many blunders, no persons believe that man 
respecting any thing, save manifest facts. 



Exercise in Construction. 

139. Form sentences in the present or past tenses of the following verbs. 
with nouns. for appropriate subjects and objects, and modify either nouns or 
verbs with an appropriate prepositional phrase. 

1. alter, answer, benumb, better, corner, pardon, pity, place, 

2. pinch, pink, piece, picture, plant, poison, ponder, reflect, 

3. need, reduce, reel, restrain, .lubricate, save, saddle, silence, 

4. salt, sail, sudden, quench, question. 



PRONOUNS. 

140. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. 

The name pronoun mean's for a noun. 

When we have occasion to mention the same thing often, the 
pronoun serves a much better purpose than the noun. 

141. The following sentences will illustrate the use of -pvo- 
nouns. 

Little Henry earned some money, and he purchased an enter- 
taining book ; it delighted his sister and her friend, and they 
praised him. 

Here are six pronouns. He is used in the place of Henry, it 
in the place of book, his in the place of Henry's, her in the place 
of Henry's sister s, they in the place of Henry's sister and Henry's 
sister's friend, and him in the place of Henry, when Henry would 
be the object of a verb. 

If we express the same without the pronouns, it must be as 

follows : 

Little Henry earned some money, and Henry purchased an 
entertaining book ; the book delighted Henry's sister and Henry's 
sister's friend, and Henry's sister and Henry's sister's friend 
praised Henry. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

142. A pronoun always represents a noun or its equivalent, 
and usually some noun going before it in the same connection. 
And as the word, antecedent, means going before, 

That word which a pronoun represents is called its ante- 
cedent. 

In the foregoing sentence, Henry is the antecedent of he, his 
and him; book, of it; sister, of her; and sister and friend together 
are the antecedents of they. 

2. The following are some of the words which are always pro- 
nouns : he, she, it, his, her, its, they, their, them. These in the 
language of grammar are called pronouns of the third person, 
because they always represent persons or things spoken of, and 
never persons spoken to or speaking. Every pupil knows the 
meaning of these words and can tell their gender, as of nouns, 
that is, whether they denote males or females or neither, and 
their number, whether they denote one or more than one, as 
required in the following exercise. 

Exercise XVI. 

CONTAINING PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. 

143. Describe all words, tell what each modifier mo Jifles, and of pronouns, 
gender, number, and antecedent when expressed. Tell of any pronoun whether it 
is subject or object, or denotes possession. 

1. Fanny practices on her piano very industriously. 
2. George delights in the study of grammar, he searches out 
the properties of every word in the exercises, and his teacher 
commends him. 3. Father's orchard yields a great quantity of 
fruit, he employs a laborer in it, and he gathers the fruit and 
packs it in barrrels for sale. 

Obs— A sentence containing a pronoun that does not refer to any particular 
person or thing is sometimes given. It may then be said that no antecedent is 
expressed. But the pupil can tell what gender and number it is fitted to represent. 

4. He works. She studies. It revolves. They rejoice. 

5. He informs her. She instructs him. It pleases them. 

6. They pursue it. It pursues them. Lucy's kitten amuses 
her. 7. The little girl's mistakes distress her. 8. The boy 
gazed on the rainbow, and it enraptured him. 9. The man's 
appetite craved an animal diet ; it satisfied him. 9. The sol- 
diers' many and wearisome labors greatly fatigued them. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

11. That officer performs all his duty. 12. The bird relin- 
quished its flight and alighted. 13. That family abandoned 
their mountain home and secured another retreat. 14. Learn- 
ing refines and elevates its possessor's mind. 15. Tigers inhabit 
Asiatic forests ; they exhibit great ferocity ; and the people hunt 
them with great caution. 16. Edmund's story entertained his 
numerous friends; its remarkable incidents and his narrow 
escapes excited their surprise. 

OF GBAMMATICAL PEKSON. 

144. The term person in grammar has a meaning different 
from its common acceptation. It does not indicate one human 
being as distinguished from another, or from other creatures. 

It indicates simply the relation of an individual, man, woman 
or thing, to what is said, as being the speaker, the one spoken 
to, or that which is spoken of. If an individual expresses his 
own state or action, and says I learn, I walk, or if in the name 
of others with himself, he says we learn, we ivalk, the terms / 
and ice are pronouns standing for the individuals speaking, and 
are said to be in the first person. 

If he speaks to others, and uses terms to indicate those spoken 
to ; as, Thou learnest, Ye or you ivalk, the terms thou and ye or 
you are pronouns employed to denote the individuals spoken to, 
and are said to be in the second person. 

All terms employed to denote other individuals or things 
which are neither speaking nor spoken to, but spoken of, are 
said to be in the third person. Such are the pronouns named 
in § 142, 2. 

145. And, when irrational creatures are represented as 
speaking, the terms applied to denote them have the same 
distinction of first, second and third person ; as, when in iEsop's 
fables, the young crab says to his mother, " I beg you would 
show me, by your own example, how you would have me 
behave," I and me are pronouns in the first person, you and your 
in the second. 

146. Thus it appears that, 

1. Grammatical person denotes the relation of individ- 
uals, either human beings or other things, to what is said. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The terms which speakers employ to denote themselves, 
are in the first person. 

3. The terms which speakers employ to denote those to 
whom they speak, are in the second person. 

4. All terms employed to denote beings or things spoken of, 
are in the third person. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

147. Some pronouns are always first person, some are 
always second person, and some are always third person. And 
as these are never interchanged with each other, but always 
represent the same grammatical person, they are called per- 
sonal pronouns. And hence the following definition. 

148. Personal pronouns are those which always repre- 
sent the same grammatical person. 

PEOPEETIES OF PEESONAL PEONOUNS. 

149. Personal pronouns have distinct forms in each person 
for the singular and plural; as, I singular, we plural; he sing., 
they plu., etc. 

2. And in the third person singular there are distinct forms 
for the three genders ; he for the masculine, she for the femi- 
nine, it for the neuter. But all the genders have the same form 
in the. first and second persons, and in the third person plural. 

Rem.— The 1st and 2d pers. are com. gen., i. e., they are either mas. or fern. 
And so of the 3d pers. plu. when it refers to creatures that have sex, otherwise 
it is better termed neuter. 

150. The personal pronouns have also certain forms in 
each person and number to be used as the subject of a finite 
verb. These forms are called nominative case. 

They have certain other forms to be used as the object of a 
transitive verb or a preposition, which are called objective case. 

And they have certain forms to denote possession, which are 
called possessive case. 

1. The possessive case of a pronoun represents the posses- 
sive form of a noun. And this form denotes ownership in some 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

sense, and modifies the following noun by showing who owns 
the thing it specifies, or to whom that thing in some sense 
belongs, either as property, or as an action, attribute, office, 
kindred, or some similar relation. 

CASES OF PEONOUNS. 

151. According to the preceding explanations we have the 
following definition of the term case: 

The cases of a pronoun are its different forms to indicate its 

different relations to the verb, or to other words. 

152. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

153. The nominative case is that form of a pronoun 
which is used for the subject of a finite verb ; as, I, we, thou, 
ye, he, they. 

154. The possessive case is that form of a pronoun 
which represents the possessive form of a noun ; as, my, our, 
thy, your, his, their. 

155. The objective case is that form of a pronoun which 

is used for the object of a verb or a preposition; as, me, us, 

thee, you, him, them. 

The forms of the personal pronoun are shown definitely in 
their several cases, persons, genders and numbers, in the fol- 
lowing declension. They have no distinction of gender, except 
in the third person singular. With nearly every personal pro- 
noun, its* form alone will show whether it should be subject, or 
object, or denote possession. 

DECLENSION OF PEKSONAL PEONOUNS. 

156. A systematic arrangement of the forms of the 
personal pronouns, in regard to person, number, gender, and 
case, is called their declension. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This is seen below and should be carefully fixed in the mind 
of the pupil. 

iVora. Pos. Obj. 

1st Pers \ Sin 9 ular > t m J> or mine > me - 

># j Plural, we, our, or ours, us. 

2d Pers \ ^ n 9 u ^ ar » thou, . thy, or thine, thee. 

\ Plural, ye, or you, your, or yours, you. 

f ( Mas. he, his, him. 

9/7 P^o J Sin 9- 1 Fern. she, her, or hers, her. 

da FeTS ' } ( Neut. it, its, it. 

I Plural, they, their, theirs, them. 

The pupil should repeat the declension across the page in 
this manner : 

1st pers. sing. nom. I; pos. my or mine; obj. me. 

plu. nom. we; pos. our or ours ; obj. us. 
Then the 2d person in the same manner. 
And the 3d pers. sing, mas., etc. 

157. The forms mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, theirs are used 
only when the noun they would modify is understood. The 
manner in which they are used will be explained when treating 
of construction. His is employed in the same form when the 
noun is understood as when it is expressed. 

In our translation of the Bible and books of that age, mine 
and thine, are frequently used for my and thy before a noun 
expressed; as, "mine hand," "mine eyes," "thine heart," "thine 
ears." 

158. 1. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in num- 
ber, gender and person. 

2. When it is the subject of a finite verb it must be in the 
nominative case. 

3. When it is the direct or indirect object of a verb or the 
object of a preposition, it must be in the objective case. 

4. When it denotes possession or belonging to, it must be 
in the possessive case. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

159. Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding to 
the possessive case singular of the first and second person, the 
ending self making myself and thyself; and to the possessive 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

case plural of the same persons the ending selves, making our- 
selves, yourselves. 

And in the third person the same additions are made to the 
objective case singular and plural, making himself, herself, itself, 
themselves. 

160. These compound pronouns have no form for the pos- 
sessive case, but may be either the subject or object of a verb, or 
object of a preposition. 

In declension they stand thus : 

First Person. 

Nom. sing. Myself. Plur. Ourselves. 

Poss. " " 

Obj. " Myself. " Ourselves. 

Second Person. 

Nom. sing. Thyself, Plur. Yourselves. 

Poss. " " 

Obj. " Thyself. " Yourselves. 

Third Person. 
Nom. sing. Himself, Herself, Itself. Plu. Themselves. 

Poss. " ■— " 

Obj. " Himself, Herself, Itself. " Themselves. 

161. The compound personal pronouns are often ' placed in 
apposition with other pronouns or nouns, by way of emphasis ; 
as, He himself performed the task. They themselves confess the 
fact. The man himself believes the story. 

162. Definition of Apposition. A noun or pronoun con- 
nected with another, to identify, explain, or emphasize it, is 
said to be in apposition with it, or is called an appositive to it ; 
as, Paul, the apostle; Nero, the tyrant. 

163. These compound pronouns are also sometimes used as 
the subject of a verb ; as, Himself departed, Themselves 
suffer loss. 

But they are most frequently used as a reflexive object ; as, He 
injured himself, She comforted herself, They blamed themselves. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE PEONOUN YOU IS ALWAYS PLURAL. 

164. The pronoun you should always be regarded as a 
grammatical plural, though we apply it to one individual or 
more at pleasure. (See Fowler's Grammar, p. 581, note IV. 
and other authors. 

This is apt to prove a perplexity to beginners. For Willie says don't I say you 
to Charlie, and he is only one. And it is to be regretted that some grammarians, 
by placing the word you among singular pronouns, and employingit in the singular 
column in conjugating verbs, have encouraged the belief th&tyou is to be regarded 
as singular in grammar. But if you is grammatically singular, then the verb are, 
that agrees with it, is singular; and for as good a reason tongs and scissors are 
singular, as they each denote but one instrument. But these nouns are called phiral 
because they require a plural verb; and for the same reason you should be regarded 
and parsed as grammatically plural, even when denoting an individual. 

165. The exercises for parsing in the first part of this Grammar are con- 
structed in the use of thou to denote an individual, and you to denote more than 
one. This leads the learner more easily and surely to a clear understanding of the 
proper use of the pronouns and the persons of the verb. ' When the forms with 
thou, as singular, and you, as plural, are made familiar, it is easy to learn the fact 
that the plural you is now generally employed in addressing an individual, and 
carries its plural verb with it. This is as easy as to learn that the third person 
plural, sie, in German, is employed in like manner. 

This course familiarizes the learner with the forms of expression which he will 
find in much of our best literature, where this usage prevails. Some of our Gram- 
marians would set aside the forms of the 2d person singular, Thou lovest, Thou 
fearest, as obsolete and scarcely to be noticed, because, except with the "Society 
of Friends," they have dropped out of our colloquial and ordinary language. But 
can that which is a prevailing usage in Scripture, in Shakespeare, Milton, and a 
giant host of their cotemporaries, and in all our addresses to the Supreme Being, 
be obsolete in any such sense, that it should be ignored, or even obscured in the 
minds of the students of the English language? 

NOUNS ARE MOSTLY IN THE THIRD PERSON. 

166. tLet the [pupil know, once for all, if a noun is subject or object of a 
verb, or object of a preposition, it is third person, and he need not repeat the words, 
third person, every time he parses a noun in these relations, which embrace at least 
ninety-nine hundredths of all the nouns occurring. 

167. A noun is first person only when in apposition with a 
pronoun of first person; and is second person only when in 
apposition with a pronoun of second person, or when employed 
as a term of address. 

IT IS USELESS TO APPLY THE TERM CASE TO NOUNS. 

168 The term case is properly applied to a change of form, 
and is appropriate to pronouns. But as a noun in English does 
not change its form to indicate the subject or object, we have 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

no need to apply to it the term case. When we have called a 
noun subject or object, we have expressed all that the term 
nominative or objective case would express. And with children, 
to employ continually different terms for the same things, and 
things which to their minds seem abstruse, is very bewildering. 
In employing the terms subject and object from the first, we 
have no new ones to learn in analysis to indicate these same 
relations. 

169. The form of the noun denoting possession is appropri- 
ately and sufficiently distinguished, when we have called it the 
possessive form. 

ABOUT THE PEKSONS OF THE VEKB. 

170. In giving the present and past tenses of the verb, in 
§§ 95-97, they could not be given in the first and second per- 
sons, for want of any thing explained that could be subject in 
these persons. No noun can be subject of a verb in the first or 
second person. No word in the language can be subject of a 
verb in the first person, except I in the singular and ive in the 
plural. And no word can be subject in the second person, 
except thou in the singular, and ye or you in the plural. 

Since these several words have now been given in the declen- 
sion of pronouns, the three persons of the verb may be given also. 

171. A Table of the Present and Past Tenses of 
the Indicative Mode, showing their different persons and 
numbers, with their appropriate pronouns prefixed as subject. 

PKESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I learn, 
2d Pers. Thou learnest, 
3d Pers. He learns, [eth.] 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We learn, 
2d Pers. Ye or you learn. 
3d Pers. They learn. 



Rem.— The ending eth is used in Scriptural style and in much of our older 
literature, in place of s or es in the 3d pers. sing, of the present tense, but is not 
used in our com. language of the present day. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I learned, 
2d Pers. Thou learnedst, 
3d Pers. He learned. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We learned, 
2d Pers. Ye or you learned, 
3d Pers. They learned. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

172. By the above table it will be seen that the verb changes 
its form for number and person only in the second and third 
person singular. The manner in which the 3d pers. sing, of 
the present tense is formed from the root has been shown 
(§78, 2). The second pers. sing, of the present tense is formed 
from the root by annexing est, and dropping e final of the root, 
when it occurs, and changing y final to i, when preceded by a 
consonant. 

173. The second person singular .of the past tense is formed 
by annexing st to the ground form of the past; which unites in 
the same syllable with the ed; as, hated, hatedst; and if the ed 
had before united in pronunciation with the preceding syllable 
of the root, it now forms with st a distinct syllable ; as, loved, 
lovedst; appeared, appearedst. 

174. The other persons and numbers of the past tense are 
distinguished by their subjects only, in the 1st and 2d persons 
by the pronouns only ; for these persons can have no other 
subjects than those in the table. But the third person may 
have for its subject, any pronoun of the third person, or any 
noun, or any thing that can stand for a noun. But the verb 
must agree with it in number as well as in person, according to 
the following 

KULE. 

175. A verb must agree with its subject in number and 
person. 

176. In the table of the present and past tenses of the verb 
learn above given, which represents a part of the systematic 
conjugation of any regular verb, we have twelve different parts 
of the verb. These are not all different words, but each has a 
different relation of person, number or tense, and each is termed 
a different part of the same verb. And these are only a small 
portion of the different parts which may arise when auxiliaries 
are also employed. The pupil is sometimes slow to learn that 
all these are only parts of the same verb. They have either 
different forms, or different relations to the subject, but they 
all retain the same general idea, which in this verb is the idea 
of learning ; in the verb turn, of changing position. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 

177. When we wish to name the whole verb or any spe- 
cific part of it in a general way, without designating what part, 
we place the word to before the root; thus, to learn, or to turn. 
We call all the parts together, or any specific part, the verb to 
learn or to turn. And the verb expressing motion on the feet we 
call the verb to walk. And the verb expressing passage in a 
boat we call in like manner the verb to sail. And so of all verbs. 

178. Let the pupil inflect the following verbs through their 
different forms in fhe present and past tenses, in the same 
manner as to learn is inflected in §171, and describe the changes 
which take place in their terminations. 

Finish, confess, entreat, love, hate, dry. 
Confide, harass, vex, delay, purify, charm. 

. SUGGESTIONS ABOUT PARSING ORALLY. 

179. Parsing is telling the Parts of Speech and the prop- 
erties of words as Parts of Speech. 

That is, it is telling whether a word is a noun, adjective, pro- 
noun, verb, or adverb, etc. And if it is a noun, telling its class, 
whether common, proper, abstract, etc., and its gender and number. 
And of any word the pupil should tell all the properties that 
have been explained. 

Telling the relation of words to one another properly belongs 
to analysis. But pupils should from the first tell the subject 
and object, and what other words modify. They should be 
accustomed to describe words in brief and definite language 
similar to the following : 

In the first sentence, next Exercise, they will say, Thou is a 
pronoun, pers., com. gen., 2d pers., sing., and nom. case; the 
subject of the verb deliveredst; and accords with the rule which 
requires that a pronoun when the subject of a verb should be 
in the nom. case (§158, 2). Its antecedent is not found in this 
connection. 

Deliveredst is a verb, trans., past tense, 2d pers. sing., and 
having thou for its subject, accords with the rule that requires 
a verb to agree with its subject in num. and pers. (§175). . 

Them is a pronoun, pers., com. gen., 3d pers. plu., obj. case, 
the direct obj. of deliveredst, and accords with the rule which 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

requires that a pronoun, when the direct or indirect object of a 
verb or object of a preposition, should be in the obj. case 
(§158, 3). Antecedent not expressed. 

My, in the second sentence, is a pro., per., com. gen., 1st 
pers. sing., pos. case, and modifies mother. The antecedent is 
the person speaking. 

Mother is a noun, com. concrete, fern, sing., and the direct 
object of the verb love. Say nothing of case in regard to nouns, 
or of person, unless it is a term of address, or in apposition 
with a pronoun. (See § 162.) 

In parsing the phrase, ivith tender care, in sentence third, he 
will say with is a preposition having care for its object ; tender 
is a com. adjective, descriptive, positive degree, and modifies 
care, (compare it if required) ; care is a noun, abstract, neut. 
gen., sing. ; and the prepositional phrase, ivith tender care, mod- 
ifies watched, to tell how she watched. 

The teacher will require any degree of particularity that he 
thinks best, in regard to whatever has been explained. 

It is unwise to require a pupil to give the reason for each 
statement, at every step in parsing. If he parses rightly, it is 
presumed that he knows the reason for what he says. If he 
makes a mistake, ask the reason for his statement. 

Exercise XVII. 

180 . Embracing the personal pronouns in the first and second 
person, with regular verbs in the present and past tenses. 

Tell the tense, person, and number of each verb, and the person, number, gen- 
der, and case of each pronoun; and the antecedent when expressed; also tell the 
subject, object, and modifiers; and other things as before explained. 

1. "Thou deliveredst them." 2. I love my mother dearly. 
3. With tender care, she watched over my cradle and my 
childhood. 4. Now, her period of dependence approaches. 
5. My duty to her allows no neglect ; it requires my constant 
and affectionate attention. 6. Its faithful performance returns 
an ample reward in the grateful emotions of my own heart. 
7. "Thou remainest forever." 8. "They rejected his stat- 
utes and his covenant." 9. "Thou desirest not sacri- 
fice." "Thou delightest not in burnt offerings." 10. "I 
delight in the law of God after the inward man." 
11. "They furthered the people and the house of God." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

12. "An Egyptian delivered us from the shepherds." 13. "We 
establish the law." 14. "He established a testimony in 
Jacob, and appointed a law in Israel. " 15. "I love thy com- 
mandments above gold." 16. "Thou triest the heart." 
17. "We esteemed him not." 18. "I hate every false way." 
19. "Thou turnest men to destruction." 20. "An evil spirit 
troubleth thee." 21. "The visions of my head troubled me." 
22. "Ye ask and receive not." 23. "Thou trustest upon the 
staff of this bruised reed." 24. "Thou troubledst the waters 
with . thy feet, and fouledst their rivers." — Ezeck. 22:2. 
25. "We desire not the knowledge of thy ways." 26. "I devise 
a device against you." 27. "Your iniquities seperate between 
you and God." 28. "Ye despise this word and trust in oppres- 
sion and perverseness, and stay thereon." 29. The mother 
dotes on her darling infant ; it plays prettily with its rosy 
fingers. 30. "After thy hardness and impenitent heart, thou 
treasurest up unto thyself wrath against the day of wrath, and 
revelation of the righteous judgment of God." 31. "Thou 
crownedst him with glory and honor." 

Note.— In our modern practice we seldom use the 2d pers. sing, of the past 
tense in edst, but employ the auxiliary didst, and instead of crownedst say didst 
crown, unless we use the plu. pro. you. But the form in edst was frequent 
between two and three hundred years ago; and hence is often found in writings 
of that period. 

Exercise in Construction. 

181. Form sentences in both the present and past tenses of the following 
verbs; with either nouns or pronouns for subject or object; but use at least one 
pronoun in every sentence. Endeavor to use every personal pronoun, except 
those named in § 157; and bring in some at least of the compound pronouns. 

1. shield, show, divide, sharpen, rule, ruin, yawn, yell, yelp, 

2. yoke, wrong, loosen, mind, worship, wonder, witness, widen, 

3. till, whiten, whistle, visit, vindicate, whisper. 



THE VEEB TO BE, AS COPULA. 

182. The verb to be is the most irregular, the most peculiar, 
and the most common of all the verbs of the English language. 
It is so common that persons seldom converse together for a 
minute without using it. 

It is conjugated in the present and past tenses as follows : 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

VERB TO BE. 

183. PKESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I am, 
2d Pers. Thou art, 
3d Pers. He is. 



1st Pers. We are, 

2d Pers. Ye or you are, 

3d Pers. They are. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I was, 
2d Pers. Thou wast, 
3d Pers. He was. 



PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 
1st Pers. We were, 
2d Pers. Ye or you were, 
3d Pers. They were. 

The learner should commit thoroughly these tenses in their 
several parts, as they here stand. 

184. But the pupil, wonders that this should be called the 
verb, to be; for he notices that the word be is not once found in 
these tenses. 

Again, he will wonder that the words, am, is, are, was, should 
be considered as belonging to the same verb, since in form they 
have no resemblance to each other. 

But they are alike in signification, and in the manner in 
which they are used. 

HOW A PKEDICATB IS FOBMED WITH THE COPULA. 

185. In regard to its use this verb differs from all others 
in one important particular. Although employed like other 
verbs to declare something about a subject, it seldom declares 
anything without the help of another word. When we say, 
The grass is green, the other word green, which is an adjective, 
expresses what is declared of the grass, and the verb is simply 
declares the connection between the adjective and the subject, 
and asserts that the quality green belongs to the grass. 

186. And this verb is not only used to declare a connection 
between an adjective and the subject, but often between another 
noun and the subject. And thus it declares that another noun 
denotes the same thing as the subject noun, or denotes the class 
to which the subject noun belongs ; as, The man is a physician, 
I am a citizen, Eagles are birds. 

i 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

187. And because is, am, are, or any part of the verb to be, 
connects an adjective or noun to the subject in this manner, it 
is called the copula or bond. The verb by itself, in this case, 
does not declare anything. The words, grass is, do not declare 
anything, unless a different thought from that intended. And 
so the words, grass, green, without the is, declare nothing. Is 
green must be united to make a declaration. 

188. Therefore is green, i.e., the two words together, are 
called the predicate, meaning that which is predicated or declared 
of the subject. Hence we familiarly call any part of the verb 
to be, thus used, a copula, and necessarily look for some other 
word to complete the declaration. That other word is generally 
an adjective or noun. 

189. A noun thus used after the verb to be is called a 
predicate noun, to distinguish it from the subject, or any noun 
otherwise used. And if a pronoun is thus used, it must be in 
the nominative case, and is called a predicate nominative or 
simply a predicate pronoun. 

190. An adjective thus used is called a predicate adjective,* 
to distinguish it from- the use of the same or any adjective 
without the copula ; as, green grass, blue sky. In this latter 
use, green and blue are called attributive adjectives. The attribute 
thus expressed by the adjective, is simply assumed to belong to 
the noun, but its connection is not declared. 



Exercise XVIII. 



191. Tell which are predicate and which attributive adjectives,— Tell predi- 
cate nouns,— And parse all words as directed in previous exercises, including per- 
son, number and tense of the verb. 

1. Snow is white. 2.. A white house. 3. Blood is red. 
4. A black horse. 5. Strawberries are delicious. 6. I was a 
farmer. 7. A delightful morning. 8. A warlike queen. 
9. Eomans were warlike. 10. Many Greeks were philosophers. 

* The learner will notice that a predicate adjective is not a different kind of 
adjective, but a different use of an adjective, and so of a predicate noun. 



DO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11. Foxes are animals. 12. A black bird. 13. Some horses 
are black. 14. A tall man. 15. The tree is tall. 16. A small 
chicken. 17. The chickens are small. 18. Those little white 
animals are rabbits. 19. Thou art sick. 20. Ye are meritorious. 
21. Worthy children. 22. You are exemplary. 23. Those 
young ladies are scholars. 24. We were obedient. 25. Exem- 
plary scholars. 

MANNER OF MODIFYING THIS PREDICATE. 

192. The noun or adjective thus used may be extensively 
affected by modifiers. In the declaration, Coal is fuel, the 
simplest possible, we may modify both subject and predicate, 
and say, bituminous coal is very good fuel. * The adjective 
bituminous modifies the subject coal, and the adjective good 
modifies the predicate noun, fuel, and the adverb very modifies 
the adjective, good. The words, is very good fuel, make the 
whole predicate. 

193. In the sentence, This animal is a horse, the subject is 
already modified by the demonstrative adjective this, and the 
predicate noun by the indefinite article, a. It may be further 
modified thus : This gentle animal is Munson's fine, bay horse. 
Where we have the descriptive adjective gentle modifying the 
subject animal, making the whole subject, This gentle animal; 
and we have Munson's, the possessive form of a proper noun, 
modifying horse, and denoting ownership ; and two descriptive 
adjectives, fine and bay. The whole predicate then consists of 
the words, is Munsons fine bay horse. But the words is horse 
form the base of the predicate, called simple predicate. 



Exercise XIX. 

194. Tell the simple subject and simple predicate; and designate the copula 
and the predicate adjective or noun. .Review and describe all the parts of speech, 
and tell what the modifiers modify. Tell also the tense, person, and number of the 
verb. 

1. I am weary. 2. Thou art a scholar. 3. My cousin is 
a diligent teacher. 4. We are playful boys. 5. Ye are very 
industrious. 6. You are quite busy. 7. They are wise and 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 

upright men. 8. Good mechanics are very useful in the city. 
9. I was once a young man. 10. He was a very ingenious 
tailor. 11. Thou wast studious. 12. We were visitors at the 
park. 13. You were faithful and persevering laborers. 14. They 
were our enemies. 15. Life is short. 16. War is ruinous. 
17. Farmers are generally industrious. 18. Tomatoes are a 
very wholesome vegetable. 19. The turkey is a native of 
America. 20. The home of the brave is the home of the free. 
21. The child was very young. 22. The soldier's wounds were 
intensely painful. 23. The old man's daughter is amiable, intel- 
ligent, and industrious. [Three simple predicates.] 24. His 
family of slaves were extremely indolent and dishonest. 25. I 
of the wild woods am present with my boy. 26. Ye of the 
crowded city are most happy travelers among the green hills 
and shady groves of the country. 27. We are fond of rides in 
the country, and along the grassy banks of the placid river. 
28. The young squirrels are wonderfully playful amid the 
branches of those lofty trees. 29. "Ye are the salt of the 
earth." 

Exercise in Construction. 

195. Form twenty sentences in the use of the verb to be, in the present and 
past tenses, and so that there shall be at least one sentence in every person and 
number of each tense. 



PABTICIPLES OF THE COM. GEN. FOEM. 

196. A participle is a part of the verb, derived from its 
root, and partaking of its meaning, but modifying a noun or 
pronoun after the manner of an adjective. 

197. Every verb in its common form has three parti- 
ciples, the present, the perfect, and the preperfect. 

198. The present participle is formed from the root of 
the verb by adding ingj as, from learn, learning,- destroy, 
destroying. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A final e when silent is dropped, but a final y retained. 
From love is formed loving; from defy, defying; from beg, beg- 
ging; from impel, impelling; (For the last cf. § 98). 

Exceptions. — When silent e final is preceded by i, the i is 
changed to y; as, die, dying; lie, lying. The participle dyeing, 
from dye to color, retains the e to distinguish it from dying, 
ending life. So when e or ee at the end of a verb is not silent, 
it is retained in the participle ; as, from be, being; from see, 
seeing. 

199. Import. The present participle denotes an action 

or state in continuance. 

Examples. — The boatman rowing impels the boat. The tree 
branching ividely forms a pleasant shade. 

200. The perfect participle of regular verbs is the 

same in form as the past tense, and always ends in ed. 

From the verb to love the perfect participle is loved; from 
defy, defied, (cf. past tense, § 97.) 

201. The perfect participle of irregular verbs must 
be learned from a list (§§ 225 and 340). They are formed by 
no uniform rule. 

202. But this participle, whether having the form of the 
past tense or not, differs essentially from that tense in the way 
in which it is used ; as the following sentences illustrate : 

^"The merchant retired to his country seat employed his time 
in deeds of charity." "The merchant employed in deeds of 
charity retired to his country seat." In the first sentence 
retired is a participle and does not assert an action, but as- 
sumes or regards it as performed, and modifies merchant as an 
adjective; and employed is the past tense and asserts what the 
merchant did. In the second sentence employed is a participle 
and does not assert, but modifies merchant as an adjective, and 
retired asserts what the man did, and of course is the past 
tense. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

The two next sentences illustrate the same thing. "The 
children greatly frightened hastened away." "A flock of sheep 
hastened along by the dogs frightened the children." 

203. Import. The perfect participle denotes an 
action or state completed. 

It is chiefly used in forming tenses of the finite verb. 

204. The preperfect participle is formed by placing 

the word having before the perfect participle ; as, from love we 

have the preperfect participle having loved; from defy, having 

defied. 

Examples. — The boys, having played ball too long, were late 
at school. The fruit, having perfectly ripened, regaled us with 
its delicious flavor. 

205. Import. The preperfect participle denotes an action 
or state previously completed. 

206. All participles admit adverbial modifiers in the same 
manner as finite verbs. 

207. The present and preperfect participles, if derived from 
transitive verbs, admit a direct object; as, The boys playing 
marbles neglected their lessons. The constable suddenly cross- 
ing the road surprised the concealed thief. Here the present 
participle, crossing, modifies constable, and is modified by the 
adverb suddenly, and also by the direct object, road. Concealed 
is a perfect participle modifying thief. "The constable having 
suddenly crossed the road, surprised the concealed thief. " Here 
the parts are the same as before, only instead of the present 
participle we have the preperfect, and the adverb, as frequently 
happens, comes between the parts of the participle. 

208. The perfect participle, when used simply as a parti- 
ciple, from whatever verb derived, admits no direct object, but 
is always used in an intransitive or passive sense, as in case of 
the participle concealed above given. When used, however, in 
forming tenses of the finite verb, it admits the direct object, 
when the root from which it is derived admits it. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

209. The participle differs from the finite verb in not 
declaring an action or state, but assuming its connection with 
the noun or pronoun to which it has reference. 

210. It differs from the adjective in expressing not an 
habitual or customary attribute, but an action or state pro- 
gressing or completed at some implied time. 

211. According to the mode of formation above explained, 
we have from the verb, to return, the participles, returning, re- 
turned, having returned. To guide, the participles, guiding, 
guided, having guided. To carry, the participles, carrying, 
carried, having carried. 

In like manner, the pupil can form the participles from any 
regular verb. 



Exercise XX. 

212. Tell the participles,— of what kind,— from what verb,— what they modify 
and by what they are modified. And parse all words. 

1. The boy guiding his little sister pleased his parents. 
2. The girl guided by her brother arrived safely. 3. The boy 
having guided his sister safely received the approbation of his 
parents. 4. That pupil learning a hard lesson in fractions studied 
very closely. 5. The perplexing lesson learned delighted him 
greatly. 6. Having learned his lesson he enjoyed his recreation 
very much. 7. The horse carrying a heavy load on his back 
stumbled badly. 8. The load carried by the horse overpowered 
him. 9. The horse having a load too heavy failed on the way. 
10. The child crying disturbs the family. 11. The disturbed 
family complained bitterly. 12. The child having disturbed all 
his friends, discerned not the resulting trouble. 13. The fid- 
dling monkey amused the children. 14. The tune fiddled by 
the monkey lacked some notes. 15. The monkey having fiddled 
his tune, expected some pay. 16. Euth loving Naomi with 
great affection, accompanied her to the hills of Judea. 17. The 
loved mother-in-law cared tenderly for Kuth. 18. Jesus having 
loved his disciples, loved them unto the end. 19. The inebriate 
defying all consequences, rushes to destruction. 20. The con- 
sequences foolishly defied, ruined him entirely. 21. Having 
defied a certain ruin, he assumed a mock bravery at its 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 

approach. 22. The laborers commencing their work early com- 
pleted their task before night. 23. The other commenced work 
progressed very slowly. 24. Having commenced their work too 
late, they never finished it. 25. The man arriving too late at 
the depot, discovered the cars departing. 26. The excursionists 
having remained at the shore of the sea, gazed upon the rapidly 
increasing tide. 27. The wandering Jews sojourn in all parts 
of the world. 

Exercise in Construction. 

213- Form two sentences in which there shall be a present participle: two in 
which there shall be a perfect participle; and two in which there shall be apre- 
perfect participle. 

§§ 214-217, including Exercise XXI, are omitted.* 



MEANING OF THE TERM PRINCIPAL VERB. 

218. In every declaration there must be a verb. It may 
consist of one, two, three, or even four words. In each of the 
following assertions all the italic words make but one verb : 

1. He moves, he has moved, he may have moved, he might have 
been moved. 

2. They call, they had called, they might have called, they 

should have been called. 

In No. 1, the principal verb is move; in No. 2, it is call. All 
the other italic words are auxiliaries. The principal verb always 
conveys the chief idea in the meaning. The auxiliaries express 
the relation of mode and time regarding the declaration. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE VERB. 

219. While there is one word in every verb that is called 
the principal verb, in distinction from auxiliaries, there are cer- 
tain parts of the principal verb which are called the Principal 
Parts, because from these all other parts are formed. 

♦Included in substance elsewhere. 



64 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



220. The Principal Parts of any verb are the Present 
Tense, the Past Tense, and the Perfect Participle. 

221. The present tense always contains the root of the verb, 
and the few changes which occur in it for person and number, 
are the same for regular or irregular verbs, and are shown in 
§§ 171 and 226. 

The pupil has already learned to form the past tense and per- 
fect participle of regular verbs, which two parts in these verbs 
are always alike. (See § 97 and § 200.) 

222. The past tense and perfect participle of irregular verbs 
are formed by no regular rule, and must be learned separately 
for each verb. They are of various forms, sometimes alike, 
sometimes unlike, and sometimes one or both like the root. 



HOW TO TELL THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A VEEB. 



223. The learner can easily tell the present and past tenses 
and perject participle of any verb that he has learned to use cor- 
rectly. In breaking any thing,, as a pencil, at the present time, 
I say, "I break the pencil," which shows that break is the pre- 
sent tense. If I performed the same act yesterday, I say, "I 
broke the pencil," which shows that broke is the past tense. 
And if I use the auxiliary have before the verb, I say, "I have 
broken the pencil," which shows that broken is the perfect par- 
ticiple. 

224. We have need to know correctly the principal parts of 
all the verbs which we use ; for children are not the only ones 
who make mistakes in their use. Often we hear people say, "I 
done it," in place of I did it, using the perfect participle for the 
past tense. 

If we have not already learned those parts, or have learned 
them erroneously, we must correct our knowledge from a proper 
list of irregular verbs. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



65 



LIST OF TWENTY IEEEGULAE VEEBS. 

225. The pupil should learn to give the principal parts of 
the following verbs. No other irregular verbs will be admitted 
in the exercises till the complete list is given : 



Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Tense. 


Tense. 


Participle. 


Tense. 


Tense. 


Participle 


arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


be, or am 


, was, 


been. 


give, 


gave, 


given. 


begin, 


began, 


begun. 


have, 


had, 


had. 


break, 


broke, 


broken. 


know, 


knew, 


known. 


come, 


came, 


come. 


make, 


made, 


made. 


do, 


did, 


done. 


see, 


saw, 


seen. 


fall, 


fell, 


' fallen. 


steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


take, 


took, 


taken. 


forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten. 


teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


write, 


wrote, 


written. 



INFLECTION OF THE SIMPLE TENSES OF AN IRREG. VERB. 

226. PEESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I give, 
2d Pers. Thou givest, 
3d Pers. He gives, [eth.] 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We give, 
2d Pers. Ye or you give, 
3d Pers. They give. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I gave, 
2d Pers. Thou gavest, 
3d Pers. He gave. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We gave, 
2d Pers. Ye or you gave, 
3d Pers. They gave. 



Remaek.— As the past tense of irregular verbs does not end in ed, the adding of 
st or est to form the 2d pers. sing, makes a combination precisely as if it were pres. 
tense. But the 3d pers. takes no personal ending. 

PAETICIPLES OF IEEEGULAE VEEBS. 

227. The participles of irregular verbs in their mode of 
formation differ from the regular only in the perfect participle, 
which is found in a list. 



—5 



66 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. The following are the participles of a few verbs of the 
preceding list : 







Present. 


Perfect. 


Preperfect. 


From 


arise, 


arising, 


arisen, 


having arisen 


<< 


begin, 


beginning, 


begun, 


having begun. 


a 


do, 


doing, 


done, 


having done. 


(t 


give, 


giving, 


given, 


having given. 



Exercise XXII. 



INCLUDING THE IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE PRECEDING LIST. 

228. Parse as directed in previous exercises; but give principal parts of each 
verb, and forget not to give the person, number and tense used. 

1. Thou arisest early, 2. They arose not before breakfast. 
3. You arise in due time. 4. My tooth is sound. 5. Your eyes 
are sharp. 6. I know my lesson. 7. Samuel knew his lesson 
yesterday. 8. The man knows himself. 9. "Thou knowest 
the hearts of all the children of men." 10. Thou forgettest 
thyself. 11. Thou earnest over the sea. 12. The fishermen 
came into the harbor with quantities of fish. 13. Thou begin- 
nest thy lesson promptly. 14. The reapers began the harvest- 
ing early. 15. That thrashing machine does the work briskly. 
16. The sun arose in front of us. 17. The moon rises about 
this time. 18. I broke the crystal of my watch. 19. The 
servants did the work immediately. 20. The apples fall from 
the trees. 21. The bird pierced by the arrow fell to the ground. 

22. The kite flying in the air amused the little boys very much. 

23. That goose is wild. 24. Foxes are cunning animals. 25. 
Hannah More wrote poetry. 26. Some bright scholars write 
beautiful compositions. 27. "Thou sawest a great image." — 
Dan. 2:31. 28. He sees me approaching. 29. They saw a 
beautiful ship sailing on the smooth water. 30. The swallow 
flew over the top of the barn. 31. That hawk flies high. 32. 
Thy feet are fsore. 33. The forgotten satchel caused much 
trouble. 34. Peter having forgotten his lesson returned to his 
seat in disgrace. 35. Wicked men forsake the path of right- 
eousness. 36. The bewildered bees forsook their hive. 37. 
The gardener having hived his bees watched the scattered ones 
gathering into their new abode. 38. The deer is a pretty crea- 
ture. 39. The deer are nimble animals, (cf. § 32-5.) 40. The 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 

wood-chopper froze both his feet. 41. I freeze remaining here. 
42. The committee was large. 43. The committee were not 
unanimous. 

Remabk.— A collective noun may have a sing, or plu. verb, cf. Rule XIX. § 573. 

44. Thou givest alms with a liberal hand. 45. They gave up 
all hopes of rescue, (up adv.) 46. Those two hens have twen- 
ty-five chickens. 47. Our old spotted hen had twelve chickens. 
48. The thieves having stolen the money, escaped quickly. 49. 
Thou takest care of thyself. 50. Mother takes care of the chil- 
dren. 51. The baggage-wagon carries the trunks. 52. The 
omnibus took all the passengers. 53. The villain stole my 
watch. 54. I write letters daily. 55. Thou teachest the chil- 
dren. 56. You write very often. 57. My friends wrote yester- 
day a long account of their journey. 58. "Thou writest bitter 
things against me." 59. "So fellest thou." 60. "Thou in thy 
mercies forsookest them not in the wilderness." 61. "Thou didst 
this thing in the integrity of thy heart." 62. "Thou sawest a 
thief ; then thou consentedst with him." 63. "Thou departeclst 
from thy native home." — Shak. 64. "Thou seest the shadow 
of the mountains." 65. My sister teaches music. 66. Your 
brother taught school during last winter. 67. The scholars 
make a noise at recess. 68. Ellen gave away her pretty canary 
bird. 69. A thief stole my fine silk umbrella. 70. I know that 
villain. He steals things very often. 71. Good scholars some- 
times make mistakes. 72. John made a mistake in arithmetic 
to-day. 73. The monitor taught our class yesterday. 74. My 
uncle recently came from the city. 

Exercise in Construction. 

229. Construct two sentences with each of the irregular verbs in th« pre- 
ceding list, one in the present tense and one in the past, using different personal 
pronouns or nouns. 

OF THE CONJUGATION OF VEKBS. 

230. "A systematic arrangement of all the parts of a verb 

is called its conjugation." 

English verbs differ 'in their conjugation only as they differ 
in their principal parts. And regarding this difference they are 
divided according to the following definitions : 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

231. Verbs are arranged in two conjugations, the regu- 
lar and the irregular. 

232. Verbs which form their past tense and perfect parti- 
ciple, by adding eel, belong to the regular conjugation, and 
are called regular verbs. 

233: Verbs which do not form both their past tense and 
perfect participle, by adding ed, belong to the irregular con- 
jugation, and are called irregular verbs. 

For examples of regular verbs see the sections on the past tense and parti- 
ciples, §§ 97 and 200. 

For examples of irregular verbs see list, § 225. 

Inflections of the Principal Verb. 

234. In all the changes which the entire verb exhibits, the 
principal verb itself has only seven or eight different forms. 
The present and past tenses and perfect participle show all these 
forms. Compare §§ 171, 198, 200, 201, 226. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

235. An auxiliary verb is a word used with other verbs 
to aid in forming their different parts. §§ 81, 82. 

They are eight in number, and monosyllabic in form. 

236. The auxiliary verbs are may, can, must, and shall, 
which are used only as auxiliaries, and will, have, do, and 
be, which are used both as auxiliaries and as principal verbs. 

1. Those used only as auxiliaries have but two tenses, the 
present and the past, and neither of the others, except to be, is 
used, as an auxiliary, in any other than these tenses. 

The present and past tenses of the verb to be have been 
already given (§ 183.) These tenses of all the other auxiliaries 
are given here, and should be made familiar in their persons 
and numbers by the pupil. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



69 



CONJUGATION OP AUXILIARY VERBS. 



231. 



MAY. 

PEESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I may, 
2d Pers. Thou mayest, 
3d Pers. He may. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We may, 
2d Pers. Ye or you may, 
3d Pers. They may. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I might, 
2d Pers. Thou mightest, 
3d Pers. He might. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We might, 
2d Pers. Ye or you might, 
3d Pers. They might. 



238. 



CAN. 

PEESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I can, 
2d Pers. Thou canst, 
3d Pers. He can. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We can, 
2d Pers. Ye or you can, 
5t? Pers. They can. 



PAST TENSE, 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I could, 
2d Pers. Thou couldst, 
3d Pers. He could. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We could, 
2d Pers. Ye or you could, 
3d Pers. They could. 



239. 



MUST. 

PEESENT TENSE, 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I must, 
2d Pers. Thou must, 
3d Pers. He must. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We must, 
2d Pers. Ye or you must, 
3d Pers. They must. 



Rem.— The auxiliary must has no different form for the past tense, but the same 
form is sometimes so used as to imply past time. 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



240. 



SHALL. 



PEESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I shall, 
2d Pers. Thou shalt, 
3d Pers. He shall. 



Pbiral. 
1st Pers, We shall, 
2d Pers. Ye or you shall, 
3d Pers. They shall. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I should, 
2d Pers. Thou shouldst, 
3d Pers. He should. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We should, 
2d Pers. Ye or you should, 
3d Pers. They should. 



241. 



WILL, 



PEESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I will, 
2d Pers. Thou wilt, 
3d Pers. He will. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We will, 
2d Pers. Ye or you will, 
3d Pers. They will. , 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I would, 
2d Pers. Thou wouldst, 
3d Pers. He would. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We would, 
2d Pers. Ye or you would, 
3d Pers. They would. 



242. 



HAVE. 

PEESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I have, 
2d Pers. Thou hast, 
3d Pers. He has. [hath], 



Plural. v 
1st Pers. We have, 
2d Pers. Ye or you have, 
3d Pers. They have. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



71 



PAST TENSE, 



Singular. 
1st Pers. 1 had, 
2d Pers. Thou hadst, 
3d Pers. He had. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We had, 
2d Pers. Ye or you had, 
3d Pers. They had. 



243. 



DO. 

PEESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I do, 
2d Pers. Thou dost, 
3d Pers. He does. [doth]. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We do, 
2d Pers. Ye or you do, 
3d Pers. Theyjlo. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Pers. I did, 
2d Pers. Thou didst, 
3d Pers. He did. 



Plural. 
1st Pers. We did, 
2d Pers. Ye or you did, 
3d Pers. They did. 



Observations on the Auxiliaries. 

244. The past tense of the auxiliaries is not formed from 
the present by any apparent rule. 

In may, can, shall, and will, there is no change in form to 
express number and person, except for the second person sin- 
gular, which is commonly formed by adding st or est, but shall 
and will, in present tense, add t only and drop one I. 

Must receives no addition in any of its parts. 

Have and do in their past tense form the 2d pers. sing, in st. 
In their present singular they are more irregular. Hath and 
doth, 3d pers. sing., belong to the ancient style. Dost, does, and 
doth are pronounced as if spelled dust, duz, and duth. 



CLASSIFICATION OF AUXILIAEIES. 

245. Do and did are auxiliaries of emphasis. • They 
are used to make certain tenses more emphatic ; as, I do love 
study. I did learn my lesson. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

246. Have, had, shall and will are tense auxiliaries. 
Their use as auxiliaries is to form the tenses of other verbs. 

247. May, can, must, might, could, would and 
should, are potential auxiliaries. They characterize the 
potential modes. They also serve in connection with have to 
distinguish the tenses of those modes. 



IMPOKT 0^ POTENTIAL AUXILIARIES. 

248. The word potential (derived from the Latin word 
potens, powerful,) signifies a relation to power. It is applied 
to these auxiliaries with some latitude. But the idea of power 
or ability of some kind, though much varied, is the prominent 
idea in their meaning. 

Can and could express power preeminently ; as, I can perform 
the feat ; and he could exhibit the same. 

Must implies power exercised on the subject, by other agents 
or circumstances ; as, Man must work or starve. 

Even the permission expressed in may implies that degree of 
power which arises from not being prohibited or controlled ; as, 
He may occupy my house; i. e., He can do so, so far as I am 
concerned. 

249. It is impossible in general definitions to give all the 
varied significations of Potential Auxiliaries. Their import 
often depends on the context, and the idioms of the language. 
But the following general statements may be made : 

250. 1. Must expresses necessity. 

2. Can and could express pow T er. 

3. May and might express permission; as, He may read, 
and might recite his grammar, if he had learned it. 

1. Would expresses purpose or wish in the 1st pers. ; as, I 
would go if I could ; but simple occurrence or event in the 2d 
or 3d ; Thou wouldst find no happiness in that course. It icoidd 
not succeed, if attempted. 

5. Should expresses simple occurrence or event in the 1st 
pers. ;, as, I should be there if it were possible ; but obligation 
in the 2d and 3d ; as, Thou shouldst behave better, He should 
pay his debts. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 73 

6. Might, could, would and should, often imply a condition 
expressed or understood; as, The young man might study more 
diligently; i. e., if he was sufficiently interested. I would help 
him; i. e., if he desired it. Exercise would greatly improve his 
health; i. e., if he would take it. I should go, if I could. If 
the condition is expressed, it constitutes another and dependent 
declaration. 

251. The pupil to whom the English is vernacular, will more easily discern 
the import of the expressions in which these auxiliaries occur, than explain the 
exact shade of meaning that belongs to each auxilary itself. 

252. Let him learn to class these forms in their proper places in the modes 
and tenses, as shown in the conjugations, and his future progress and habit of 
analyzing will enable him to distinguish better their varying and somewhat intri- 
cate significations. 



GENEEAL FOEMS OF THE VEEB. 

253. All the specific forms of the verb are classed under 
four general forms, the common form, the emphatic form, the 
progressive form, and the passive form. 

254. Under these general forms, the specific forms of the 
finite verb are classed into modes and tenses, numbers and 
persons. 

255. In explaining and illustrating these different parts, 
frequent reference will be made to the Table of Conjugations 
(§ 279), where will be found all parts of the verb (except the 
interrogative and subjunctive modes) arranged connectedly, for 
the better presentation of their relation to each other. It is to 
the forms as presented in the table, that the terms mode, tense, 
etc., are applied. And the learner should fix in his mind with 
care, what forms each term designates, and then learn for what 
purposes these several forms are used. 

256. The Common Form of the verb is that general 
form, which is not a combination of the verb to be and a parti- 
ciple, and has neither do nor did as an auxiliary. 



<4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. The common form of a regular verb is seen in the first 
column of the table continued through all the pages, omitting 
those forms of the present and past tenses which are marked 
Emph. Form. 

2. The common form of an irregular verb is seen in the sec- 
ond column in like manner. 

257. An Emphatic Form may be made from nearly 
every verb, by annexing its root to the present and past tenses 
of the auxiliary, do. (§ 243.) 

See the Emphatic Form of the regular verb to turn in the first column of the 
table, and of the irregular verb to take in the second column marked Emph. 
Form. 

1. The Emphatic Form is found only in the present and 
past tenses of the pure indicative and pure interrogative modes, 
and in the imperative. 

! 2. The verb to be has no emphatic form, except in the im- 
perative mode. 

258. In the third column of the table through the several 
pages is found a complete conjugation of the verb to be. 

259. The Progressive Form of any verb is made by 

annexing its present participle to each specific form of the verb 

to be. 

We obtain the progressive form of the verb to turn, or to take, 
by annexing to the several parts of the verb to be, (3d col.) the 
participle turning, or taking, (4th col,), as indicated in the table. 

260. The Passive Form of any verb is made by annex- 
ing its perfect participle to each specific form of the verb to be. 

We obtain the passive forms of the verb to turn, or to take, by 
annexing the perfect participle turned, or taken, as indicated in 
the table. 

261. The manner in which these General Forms affect the 
import of the verb will be illustrated in giving examples for 
exercise upon the different parts of the conjugations. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 75 



MODES. 

262. Note on the Modes.— Some deviation is made from the ordinary 
classification of the modes, to render them distinct and more easily com- 
prehended. The term Pure Indicative, is used to embrace those assertions of a 
reality that are free from potential modifications; and since the potential forms 
make an assertion as truly as the other indicative forms, only modified by their 
peculiar auxiliaries, they are classed as Potential Indicative. An existing ability 
or necessity may be asserted as truly as an act performed. 

And the order of words usually employed in interrogation is as distinct a 
manner of using the verb as any other; and the forms thence arising divide into 
Pure and Potential Interrogative. 

Those hypothetical and conditional expressions dependent on a conjunction, in 
which the verb itself has no peculiar form, are best considered only as a class of 
subordinate propositions in the Indicative Mode, leaving the subjunctive mode to 
include simply those peculiar forms which are used only in hypothetical and con- 
ditional expressions. Otherwise we have no term to designate these forms speci- 
fically. And we cannot class them .on any principle of usage, for no such principle 
is uniformly observed by the majority of writers. But by knowing just what forms 
the term subjunctive includes, we shall be better prepared to discuss the propriety 
of their use. 

The infinitive of the verb is not a mode. 

Note for the Teacher.— L9t scholars commit the definitions of the modes, 
as here given, comparing them at the same time with the table (§279), so as to dis- 
tinguish the modes in form, before committing the conjugations in full with their 
tense forms. But let the import of the modes be learned in connection with the 
definitions. 

263. The Mode of a verb is the form and manner in which 
a finite verb expresses declaration. 

The specific forms of the finite verb are conveniently arranged 
in six modes, viz ; pure indicative, potential indicative, pure 
interrogative, potential interrogative, imperative, and subjunctive. 

264. An Indicative mode is a form and manner of using 
the finite verb adapted to make assertion, in which the subject 
naturally precedes the verb. 

Remark.— Cases occur in which the indicative mode is followed by the subject, 
but they are cases in which the same import could be naturally expressed with the 
subject preceding. 

265. The Pure Indicative is this usage without the po- 
tential auxiliaries ; as, The kitten plays ; The stranger has 
departed. See table, § 279. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

266. The Potential Indicative is this usage with poten- 
tial auxiliaries ; as, The kitten may play ; The stranger may 
have departed. See § 247 and table § 280. 

267. Import. The pure indicative declares the action or 
state expressed by the verb as an occurring reality, either in 
present, past, or future time. 

268. The potential indicative declares the action or state 
expressed by the verb as a possible reality, or as reality under 
the modifications expressed by the potential auxiliaries. 

269. An Interrogative mode involves a question, and is 
that form of expression in which the verb or an interrogative word 
commences an inquiry ; as, Had he a book ? May the child 
play ? Who comes here ? 

1. The interrogative words are few in number. For the 
purpose of illustrating the modes and tenses, the three interrog- 
ative pronouns, who, which, and what, will be used, but only as 
subject of the verb. Afterwards, their use in other relations 
will appear under the subject of interrogation. 

270. The Pure Interrogative mode is without potential 
auxiliaries ; as, Does the child play ? What troubles the man ? 

271. The Potential Interrogative mode has potential 
auxiliaries ; as, May the child play ? What can trouble him ? 

272. Import. The pure interrogative mode declares, or sets 
forth a question in regard to the reality of some action or event. 

273. The potential interrogative declares, or sets forth a 
question in regard to the possibility of some action or event, 
according to the import of the potential auxiliaries. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 

274. The Imperative mode consists of the first form, or 
root of the verb, followed by thou (expressed or understood) in 
the singular, and ye or you in the plural as subject; as, Depart 
thou, Hasten ye, Assist me, Comfort them. See table § 283. 

1. It has also an emphatic form made with the auxiliary do, 
and the root of the verb, with the subject between them; as, 
Do thou proceed. Do ye depart. 

2. The subject of the imperative may be expressed, but is 
oftener understood. It uniformly follows the verb, or in the 
emphatic form its auxiliary do, as above. 

275. Import. The primary use of the imperative mode is 
to express command ; as, Depart thou. But, it is frequently 
employed to exhort or entreat ; as, Hasten. Kelieve me. 

276. The Subjunctive mode includes those peculiar forms 
of the verb which are employed only in expressing hypothetical 
or conditional thought. 

This mode is not found in the general table of conjugations, 
but will be given in due time by itself. Its use cannot be illus- 
trated till we are prepared to explain complex propositions. 

277. It is supposed the learner has now acquired a fair 
understanding of the General Forms and Modes of the verb, as 
already presented, and has compared the definitions and explan- 
ations carefully with the table of conjugations. 

278. • The most pleasant and successful way of learning to 
repeat the conjugations, is to take the tenses in groups, as pre- 
sented in the sections following the table, and in connection 
with the exercises for practice. 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



A TABLE 

CONJUGATIONS, WITH THE 



Conjugation of a 
Regular, Verb, Com. Form. 



Conjugation of an 
Irregular Verb, Com. Form. 



279. Pure Indicative Mode. 



Pure Indicative Mode. 



Present Tense. 


Sing. 1. 
2. 
3. 


I turn, 

Thou turnest. 

He turns, [eth.l 


Plur. 1. 

2. 
3. 


We turn. 

Ye or You turn. 

They turn. 


Present Tense. Emph. Form 


Sing. 1. 

2. 
3. 


1 do turn, 
Thou dost turn, 
He does turn. 


Plur. 1. 
2. 
3. 


We do turn, 

Ye or You do turn, 

They do turn. 


Past Tense. 




Sing. 1. 

2. 
3. 


I turned, 
Thou turnedst, 
He turned. 


Plur. 1. 

2. 
3. 


We turned, 

Ye or You turned, 

They turned. 


Past Tense. 


Emph. Form. 


Sing. 1. 
2. 
3. 


I did turn, 
Thou didst turn, 
He did turn. 


PZur. 1. 
2. 
3. 


We did turn. 

Ye or You did turn, 

They did turn. 


Future Tense. 


Sing. 1. 

2. 
3. 


I shall turn, 
Thou wilt turn, 
He will turn. 



Present Tense. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



1. I take, 

2. Thou takest, 

3. He takes, [eth.l 

1. We take, 

2. Ye or You take, 

3. They take. 



Present Tense. Emph. Form. 

Sing. 1. I do take, 

2. Thou dost take, 

3. He does take. 

Plur. 1. We do take, 

2. Ye or You do take, 

3. They do take. 

Present Tense. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



1. I took, 

2. Thou tookest, 

3. He took. 

1. We took, 

2. Ye or You took, 

3. They took. 



Past Tense. Emph. Form. 

Sing. 1. I did take, 

2. Thou didst take, 

3. He did take. 

Plur. 1. We did take, 

2. Ye or You did take, 

3. They did take. 



Future Tense. 



Sing. 



1. I shall take, 

2. Thou wilt take, 

3. He will take. 



Plur. 1. We shall turn. 

2. Ye or You will turn, 

3. They will turn. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1. I have turned, 

2. Thou hast turned, 

3. He has turned. 

Plur. 1. We have turned, 

2. Ye or You have turned, 

3. They have turned. 



Plur. 1. We shall take, 

2. Ye or You will take, 

3. They will take. 

Present Perfect Tense. 



Sing. 



1. I have taken, 

2. Thou hast taken, 

3. He has taken. 



Plur. 1. We have taken, 

2. Ye or You have taken, 

3. They have taken. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 



79 



OF THE 

GENERAL FORMS OF THE VERB. 



Conjugation of 
the Verb To be; 

Pure Indicative Mode 

Present Tense. 

Sing. 1. I am, 

2. Thou art, 

3. He is. 

Plur. 1. We are, 

2. Ye or You are. 

3. They are. 



with the Pres. Part. 



forming I 

( the Progressive Form. 



with the Perf. Part. 
the Passive Form. 



turning, or taking. 



turned, or taken. 



Past Tense. 



Sing. 1. I was, 

2. Thou wast, 

3. He was. 

Plur. 1. We were, 

2. Ye or You-were, 

3. They were. 



turning, or taking. 



turned, or taken. 



Future Tense. 

Sing. 1. I shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 

3. He will be. 

Plur. 1. We shall be, 

2. Ye or You will be, 

3. They will be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1. I have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 

3. He has been. 

Plur. 1. We have been, 

2. Ye or You have been, 

3. They have been. 



turning, or taking. 



turned, or taken. 



turning, or taking. 



turned, or taken. 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— Continued. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1. I had turned, 

2. Thou Inidst turned, 

3. 11(3 had turned. 
Plur. 1. Wo hud turned, 

2. Yo or You had turned, 

3. They had turned. 

Future Perfect Tense. 



Past P erf jot Tense. 



Sing. 



Plur 



I had taken, 

Thou hadst taken, 

He had taken. 

We had taken, 

Ye or You had taken. 

They had taken. 

Future Perfect Tense. 



Sing. 1. I shall have turned, 

2, Thou wilt have turned, 

3. He will have turned. 
Plur. 1. We shall have turned, 

2. Yo or You will have turned, 

3. They will have turned. 



Sing. l. I shall have taken, 

2. Thou wilt have taken, 

3. He will have taken. 
Plur. 1. We shall have taken, • 

2. Yo or You will have taken, 

3. They will have taken. 



280. Potential Indicative Mode. Potential Indicative Mode. 



Present Tense. 

Sing. 1, I may turn, 

2. Thou raayst turn, 

3. He may turn. 
Plur. 1. We may turn, 

2. Ye or You may turn, 

3. They may turn. 

Past Tense. 

Sing. 1. I might turn, 

2. Thou mightst turn, 

3. He might turn. 
Plur. 1. Wo might turn, 

2. Ye or You might turn, 

3. They might turn. 

Present Perfect Tense. 



Present Tense. 

Sing. 1, I may take, 

2. Thou mayst take, 

3. Ho may take. 
Plur. 1. We may take, 

2. Ye or You may take, 

3. They may take. 

Past Tense. 

Sing. 1. I might take. 

2. Thou mightst take, 

3. He might take. 
Plur. 1. We might take, 

2. Ye or You might take, 

3. Thoy might take. 

Present Perfect Tense. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



I may have turned, 
Thou mayst have turned, 
He may have turned. 
We may have turned, 
Ye or You may have turned, 
Thoy may have turned. 



Sing. 1. I may have taken, 

2. Thou mayst have taken, 

3. He may have taken. 
Plur. 1. Wo may have taken, 

2. Yo or You may have taken, 

3. They may have taken. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1. I might have turned, 



Past Perfect Tense. 



Plur. 



2. Thou mightst have turned, 

3. He might have turned. 
Plur. 1. We might have turned, 

2. YoorYoumighthave turned 

3. Thoy might have turned. 

[Interr. modes prepared for §§ 381, 382, are to be recited from the Ind. See 
283. Imperative Mode. Imperative Mode. 



Sing. 1. I might have taken. 

2. Thou mightst have taken, 

3. He might have taken. 
We might have taken, 
Ye or You mighthave tak'n 
They might have taken. 



319.J 



Present Tense. 

Sing. 2. Turn thou, 
Plur. 2. Turn ye or you. 

Emph. Form. 

Sing. 2. Do thou turn, 
Plur. 2. Do ye or you turn. 

284. The Infinitive. 
Present, To turn, 
Perfect. To have turned. 

285. Participles.^ 

Present. Turning, 
Perfect. Turned, 
Prep'fect. Having turned. 



Present Tense. 

Sing. 2. Take thou, 
Plur. 2. Take ye or you. 



Sing. 

Plur. 



Emph. Form. 

2. Do thou take, 

2. Do yo or you take. 



The Infinitive. 

Present. To take. 
Perfeol. To have taken. 

Participles. 

Present. Taking, 
Perfect. Taken, 
Prep'fect. Having taken. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



81 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS.—Continued. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1. I had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 

3. He had been. 
Plur. 1. We had been, 

2. Ye or You had been, 

3. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1. I shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 

3. He will have been. 
Plur. 1. We shall.have been, 

2. Ye or You will have been, 

3. They will have been. 

Potential Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. 1. I may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 

3. He may be. 
Plur. 1. We may be, 

2. Ye or You may be, 

3. They may be. 



turning, or taking 



turning, or tak 



UK- 



turned, or taken 



turned, or taken. 



Past Tense. 
Sing. 



1. I might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 

3. He might be. 
Plur. 1. We might be, 

2. Ye or You might be, 

3. They might be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1. 1 may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 

3. He may have been. 
Plur. 1. We may have been, 

2. Ye or You may have been, ' * 

3. They may have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1. I might have been, turnin* 

2. Thou mightst have been, 

3. He might have been. 
Plur. 1. We might have been, 

2. Yeor You mighthave been, 

3. They might have been. 



turning, or taking. 



turning, or taking. 



turning, or taking. 



or tak 



ng. 



turned, or taken. 



turned, or taken. 



turned, or taken. 



turned, or taken. 



Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. 2. Be thou, 
Plur. 2. Be ye or you. 

Emph. Form. 

Sing. 2. Do thou be, 
Plur. 2. Do ye or you be. 

The Infinitive. 

Present. To be, 
Perfect. To have been. 

Participles, 

Present. Being, 
Perfect. Been, 
Prep'fect. Having been. 

~6 



turning, or taking. turned, or taken, 

turning, or taking. turned, or taken. 

turning, or taking. turned, or taken. 

1 

turning, or taking. turned, or taken. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

TENSES OF THE DIFFEKENT MODES. 

286. Tense denotes a distinction in the forms of the Finite 
Verb, in relation to the time of the action or state declared. 

Enumeration of Tenses. 

287. The Tenses of the Pure Indicative and Pure Inter- 
rogative modes are present, past, future, present perfect, past per- 
fect, and future perfect. 

1. The Tenses of the Potential Indicative and Potential 
Interrogative are present, past, present perfect, and past perfect. 

2. The Imperative mode has only the present tense, and 
usually only the second person of that tense. 

288. In the Common Form, the present and past tenses of 
the Pure Indicative and Pure Interrogative modes are made 
without auxiliaries, and are called simple tenses. 

All other tenses, except a part of the Imperative, and a few 
forms in the Subjunctive, are made by aid of auxiliaries, and 
are called compound tenses. 

289. The tenses are explained in groups, with an exercise 
for practice under each group, that the pupil may learn and 
familiarize a portion at a time. 

Explanation of Tenses. 

290. I. — The Pres., Past, and Fut. tenses of the Pu* Ind. 

Com. Form,; also the Emph. Form. 

These tenses are seen in the beginning of the Table of Con- 
jugations (§ 279), in the first three columns; where we have in 
the 1st col. a reg. verb ; in the 2d, an ordinary irreg. verb, and 
in the 3d, the peculiar irreg. verb to be. 

* Some abbreviations are usad; as, Pu. Inter., for Pure Interrogative; Pot. Ind. 
for Potential Indicative, and others which will naturally suggest their meaniner. 
cf. is used in references for compare; latin confer., and sq. for following, latin 
sequens; as, § 23 sq. means section 23, and one or more following. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 

The pupil has already learned to inflect a reg. and an irreg. 
verb, in the simple tenses of this mode and Form. (§ 171 and 
§ 226). Also the verb to be, in the same tenses (§ 183). 

291. The Future Tense Pu. Ind. mode, Com. Form, is 
made by annexing the root of the verb to the auxiliary shall in 
the 1st pers. sing, and plur., and to the forms of will in the 2d 
and 3d persons. (See aux. §§ 240, 241, cf. Table § 279. 

292. Import. The Future Tense Pu. Ind, denotes that an 
action or state will take place at some time yet to come. 

293. The signification of the Emph. Form is essen- 
tially that of the Common, only more emphatic. For this form 
compare § 257 and the table. 

294. The proper root of the verb, to be, is the word be, 
which though obsolete in the present, except as a subjunctive 
form, is found in trie compound tenses, where the root of the 
verb is required, and the participles, being and been, are found 
where its participles are required. 

295. In preparation for the following exercise, the pupil 
should commit to memory the tenses of this group as found in 
the first three columns of the table, without regarding, at first, 
the combination of the verb, to be, with the participles in the 
fourth and fifth columns. 

Exercise XXIII. 

296. In the Pres., Past and Fut. Tenses Pu. Ind. Com. 
Form; and in the Emph. Form, same mode. 

Parse as usual, but with particular reference to the tenses and the Emphatic 
Form. 

1. 1 do study. 2. Thou dost play. 3. My mother instructs 
me. 4. Those parents do perform their duty well. 5. The 
young lady does paint beautifully. 6. Your aunt did teach 
you correctly. 7. The travelers did arise early. 8. Willie 
broke his arm. 9. The bulbs decayedTn the ground. 10. The 
ingenious little bees do construct wonderful cells. 11. Our 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

friends did depart yesterday. 12. Those careless scholars for- 
got their books. 13. I shall lea**n my lesson in season. 14. 
Thou wilt acquire riches by industry. 15. The visitor will come 
to-morrow. 16. The bird will fly very high. 17. Those wicked 
boys did disobey their father. 18. We shall not associate with 
those bad boys. 19. We wil] forsake them. 20. Henry did 
take the little boy's part. 21. Mary will begin her painting- 
soon. 22. She will make good progress. 23. Thou shalt not 
blame my brother. 24. "Ye are children of the light and of 
the day." 25. Ye did toil well. 26. Those carpenters will per- 
form their work properly. 27. I shall begin the study of phi- 
losophy to-morrow. 28. You do hasten rapidly. 29. That old 
puss will steal. 30. We shall make a merry company. 31. 
We wrote three letters apiece. 32. You will delay the business. 
33. The panes of glass in the windows will be very large. 34. 
"Thou consentedst with the thief." — Ps. 50:18. 35. "Thy 
tongue deviseth mischiefs." — Ps. 52:2. 36. Ye will be success- 
ful scholars. 27. Her dress was white and neat. 38. The 
musketoes will be very numerous in the swamp. 39. We shall 
be attentive. 40. Thou wilt be a good scholar. 41. Your 
sister, too, does learn well. 

Exercise in Construction. 

297. Construct sentences in the pres,, past and fut. tenses of the Pu. Ind. 
mode, Com. Form; and in the Emph. Form, producing at least one sentence in the 
sing, and one in the plu. of each tense. Give different persons of the verb indiffer- 
ent sentences. Use any reg. verbs and any of the irreg. verbs in the preeeding 
list of twenty, § 225. 

298. II. — The Pres. Per/., Past Per/., and Future Perf. 
tenses, Pu. hid., Com. Form. 

299. The Present Perfect tense, Pu. Ind., is made by 
annexing the perfect participle to the present tense of the aux- 
iliary have: thus, I have turned, Thou hast turned, He has 
turn, etc. cf. § 242, and table, § 279. 

300. Import. The Present Perfect declares an action or 
event as having taken place in past time, but within a period of 
past time that reaches to the present. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 85 

Its use precludes all reference to any particular past time. 
We cannot say, I have finished the work yesterday ; but may 
say, I have finished it, without deciding when. It fixes the 
mind on the fact of completion. 

301. The Past Perfect tense, Pu. Ind., is made by annex- 
ing the perfect participle to the past tense of the aux. have; as, 
I had turned, We had turned, etc. cf. § 242, and table, § 279. 

302. Import. The Past Perfect declares an action or event 
as having taken place before some other event which is also 
past. 

303. The Future Perfect tense, Pu. Ind., is made by 
annexing the perfect participle to the future tense of the verb 
have; that is, to shall have in the 1st pers. sing, and plu., and 
to will have in the 2d and 3d pers. cf. §§ 240, 241, and table. 

§ 279. 

304. Import. — The Future Perfect denotes that an action 

or state will take place before some other event yet future. 

The pupil should now learn to inflect these three tenses from 
the table of conjugations. § 279. 

Exercise XXIV. 

305. In the Pres. Perfect, Past Perfect, and Future 

Perfect Tenses, Pu. Ind. Mode, Com. Form. 

Parse as usual, but with particular reference to the tenses. 

1. T have finished. 2. Thou hast finished. 3. We had 
departed. 4. We have visited our cousins. 5. Thou hast 
wandered from the path of duty. 6. No friend has visited the 
prisoners. 7. I had written three letters to my father. 8. I 
shall have seen the president. 9. You will have gone to the 
seaside in July. 10. Ye had sanctified yourselves. 11. Thou 
wilt then release him. 12. He has frozen his feet. 13. I 
did take care of him. 14. Ye have unkindly forsaken those 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wounded men. 15. They have plotted against him. 16. The 
prisoner had deserved well that punishment. 17. Thou wilt 
have recovered in a week. 18. We shall have been there then. 
19. They had sailed for France. 20. I shall see him soon. 
21. Thou wilt have seen him then. 22. The ship will have 
arrived by that time. 23. The servants will have prepared the 
carriage. 24. I love my friends. 25. He does hate his enemies 
most bitterly. 26. Those wounded prisoners do deserve better 
care. 27. The sun has arisen. 28. Thou hast neglected thy 
duty. 29. The invaders forsook the country. 30. I have 
earned my money. 31. They did testify the truth. 32. We 
have learned the facts. 33. I had not received my money. 
34. We had completed our visit. 35. He will have returned 
in the morning. 36. The slater had fallen from the roof to the 
ground. 37. I shall have been there early. 38. He has been 
very sick. 39. Ye have been lazy. 40. I shall be careful. 
41. The robins have been absent in the south. 42. We had 
settled all our business. 43. Ye had been strangers. 44. We 
shall have departed. 45. Those sun-burnt, weather-beaten 
soldiers had lately come from the war. 46. You will have been 
fortunate. 47. They will have profited by your example. 
48. Ye have been very uneasy. 49. The summer jwill have 
flown. 50. The ice had been very thick. 

Exercise in Construction. 

306. Construct sentences in the pres. per/., past perf., and fut. per/, tenses of 
the Pu. Ind. mode, Com. Form, producing at least one sentence in the sing, and 
one in the plur. of each tense, and in different persons. 

III. — Tenses of the Potential Indicative Mode. 

307. The definition and import of the Potential Indicative 
mode have been given (§§ 264-268). 

The peculiar auxiliaries which characterize it have been 
enumerated, and their general import explained (§§ 247-252). 

308. The pupil should now learn the forms- of the tenses. 
Of the import of these tenses in regard to time, it may be 
observed that they have not that distinct relation to time which 
is found in the tenses of the Pu. Indicative. They are named 
rather from their form than their signification. 

1. The Present tense of the Pot. Ind. has generally a relation 
to present time, but often indistinctly. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87 

2. The past tense of this mode has in itself little temporal 
relation, but may be used so as to imply present, past, or 
future time. 

3. The Present Perfect and Past Perfect have but an indis- 
tinct relation to time. 

These tenses in other respects take their peculiar signification 
from the potential auxiliaries as explained (§§ 248-252). 

309. The Present Tense of the Pot. Ind., is made by 
annexing the root of the verb to the present tense of the auxil- 
iary may. 

For examples see table, § 280; ef. §§ 237-239. 

Where the aux. may occurs in the table, either can or must 
may be substituted, and the mode and tense will remain the 
same. 

310. The Past tense, Pot. Ind., is made by annexing 
the root of the ve^b to the auxililiary might. 

For example see table, § 280, and cf. §§237-239. 

Wherever might occurs in the table, either could, or would, or 
should, may be substituted, and the mode and tense will remain 
the same. 

311. The Present Perfect tense, Pot. Ind., is made by 
annexing the perfect participle, preceded by have, to the present 
tense of the aux. may. 

For example see table, § 280, and cf. §§ 237-239. 

312. The Past Perfect tense, Pot. Ind., is made by 
annexing the perfect participle preceded by have to the aux. 
might. 

For examples see table, § 280; cf. §§ 237-239. 

Rem.— The may have and might have in these last tenses are the same as the 
present and past tenses, Pot. Ind., of the verb to have. 

Before entering upon the following exercise, the pupil should 
carefully commit the tenses of the Pot. Ind. mode from the 
table. 



ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 



Exercise XXV. 



313. In the Tenses of the Pot. Ind. Mode. 

Parse as usual, with particular reference to mode and tense. 

1. Helen can learn grammar. 2. I may reach the city on 
Thursday. 3. I shall terminate my journey in two days. 
4. He might be more industrious. 5. "Thou mayest be their 
king." 6. "Thou canst not see my face." 7. James must 
learn that lesson. 8. We should have been contented. 9. Con- 
tented people are the most happy. 10. We may have regretted 
his absence. 11. We must perform our duty. 12. Our friends 
have fulfilled their engagements. 13. Ye might be more peace- 
ful. 14. Your conduct did excite disturbance. 15. They may 
have forsaken their friends. 16. I will never forsake my friends. 
IT. The Indians can make baskets. 18. I could break that bar 
of iron. 19. Thou shouldst learn thy lesson immediately. 
20. I may have injured him unintentionally. 21. I did not 
design any harm. 22. Thou mightest have fallen from the 
bank into the river. 23. Two little boys have fallen into the 
water to-day. 24. That villain may have stolen my knife. 
25. Those bad boys do steal sometimes. 26. We must have 
directed our letters erroneously. 27. You might have seen the 
menagerie to-day. 28. Those tigers in the menagerie were very 
fierce. 29. The carrier could have delivered the letters earlier. 
30. A dishonest soldier might fall away to the enemy. 31. The 
enemy will not trust a deserter. 32. Ye cannot have forgotten 
his account of the matter. 33. Those pupils must have mis- 
conceived my instructions. 34. I could not have instructed 
them in that way. 35. Thou shouldst have been more careful. 
36. I do love my studies very much. 37. Sophia writes a 
beautiful hand. 38. I could not have written so well. 39. You 
might have known those desperadoes by their looks. 40. They 
did make a villainous appearance. 41. Those travelers should 
have been more wise in their movements. 

Exebcise in Construction. 

314. Construct sentences in the tenses of the potential indicative mode, 
Com. Form, producing at least one sentence in the sing, and one in the plural of 
each tense. Let some sentences be in one person and some in another. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 

315. IV. — Tenses of the Interrogative Modes. 

See these modes defined and their import, §§269-273, and their tenses enumera- 
ted, §287. 

316. The Tenses of the two Interrogative modes 

are formed in the same manner as those of the two Indicative, 
including the Emph. Form ; differing only in having the verb 
or its first auxiliary precede the subject ; or in having an inter- 
rogative word as subject or modifier of the subject. See §§ 290, 

sq. 299, sq. and 309 sq,, and compare table of the indicative 
modes. 

317. If an interrogative word is used in any other connec- 
nection than as subject or modifier of the subject, a part of the 
verb precedes the subject, as when no interrogative word is 
used. 

318. In signification, the interrogative tenses correspond 
to the indicative, each inquiring for that which the same tense in 
the indicative would assert, with the same regard to time, and 
with a like influence from potential auxiliaries. 

319. In the following exercise no interrogative word is em- 
ployed except as subject. And no interrogative word can be 
used as subject except the interrogative pronouns, who, which 
and ivhat. 

Before parsing the following exercise, recite the tenses of both the interroga- 
tive modes from the table. This may be easily done from the stable of the indica- 
tive, by bringing the verb in the simple tenses, and its first auxiliary in the other 
tenses before the subject: thus, Turn I? Have I turned? Didst thou turn?— And 
in the 3d pers. either in the same manner, Turns he? Turned they? Have tbey 
turned?— or in using an interrogative pronoun before the verb; as, Who turned? 
What turns? Who have turned? What had turned? 

Exercise XXVI. 

320. In the Tenses of the Interrogative Modes. 

Parse as before directed, not forgetting to distinguish the modes, general forms 
and interrogative words. 

1. Do I improve? 2. Hast thou any money? 3. "Have 
the workers of iniquity no knowledge" ? 4. Could she interest 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the children? 5. Do I make a mistake? 6. Had he relieved 
that poor woman? 7. "Believest thou the prophets"? 8. 
"Keceived ye the Spirit by the works of the law"? 9. Know 
they not these things ? 10. Would they deliver the message? 
11. "Chase we still the phantoms through the fire" ? 12. Does 
he balance his accounts correctly? 13. Dost thou continually 
brood over these painful subjects? 14. Do we circulate our 
opinions too freely? 15. The cold benumbed their limbs very 
much. 16. The soldiers in those open barracks must suffer 
severely. 19. Do they not complain? 18. Who does not sympa- 
thize with them? 19. Which bestows rewards most liberally ? 
20. Do you disapprove of such behavior? 21. Did I commit a 
fault in that thing ? 22. Didst thou deny his inference ? 23. 
I endure intense sufferings. 24. What frightened that child? 
25. May John enter this class? 26. "Which is the greatest 
commandment of the law"? 27. What would content you? 
28. "Bachel had stolen her father's images." — Gen. 31:19. 29. 
Have I done my duty? 30. Wilt thou not despatch a messen- 
ger immediately? 31. Canst thou teach thy younger brothers? 
32. Could I have obtained the prize? 33. Had he broken the 
rule ? 34. Who has obtained the greatest amount of gold dust ? 
35. In early times in New England, the ladies covered their 
floors with white sand in the place of carpets. 36. Could you 
dance on a sandy floor? 37. Can I be so foolish? 38. Must 
we then submit ? 39. "Then thou consentedst with a thief." 
40. Did Hulda write a genteel and correct letter? 41. "Ye 
forsake the Lord and serve strange gods." 42. "Should I for- 
sake my sweetness and my good fruit"? 43. "Who hath be- 
lieved our report" ? 44. Shall we doubt the testimony of such 
intelligent and honorable witnesses ? 45. Will ye elevate such 
unprincipled men to office ? 

Exercise in Construction. 

321. Construct sentences in both the interrogative modes, Com. .and Emph. 
Forms, producing at least one" sentence in the sing, and one in the plur. of every 
tense in each mode and Form. 

322. V. — The Imperative Mdde, and Term of Address. 

Review what is said of the Imperative mode in §§ 274 and 275, also § 287-2. 
And commit the conjugation of this mode in the table as found in the first three 
columns, § 283, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 91 

323. The Imperative mode is always used to address either 
some intelligent being or some thing personified. 

324. A noun or pronoun used simply to denote the individ- 
ual or individuals spoken to, is styled a term of address; 

as, Hostler, bring out my horse. Here hostler is the term of 
address, and thou understood is the subject of bring. 

The term of address has no grammatical relation to other 
words, except that it may be modified by an adjective element. 
It is neither subject, predicate or modifier. 

325. The term of address may be used without the impera- 
tive mode, but the imperative mode can not be used without a 
term of address either expressed or implied. Yet it is often left 
to be inferred from the nature and connection of discourse. 

Examples. — Children, obey your parents. Fellow-citizens, 
consider well this subject. "My friends, our country must be 
free." "Plato, thou reasonest well." Abstain from evil. Do 
good. 

326. If the term of address is a pronoun, it must be in the 
nominative case. That is, it must have the same form which 
is used as the subject of a verb. 

Examples. Thou wanderer, return. Speak, ye sons of light. 
"Go, preach to the coward, thou death-telling seer." Eouse, ye 
Bo mans. 

In these examples the pronouns expressed are the terms of 
address, having nouns in apposition, and the proper subject of 
each verb is understood, thou or ye. 

327. When the term of address is a noun, although it has 
no peculiar form, it has been usual to term it nominative case 
independent. But what advantage or significance there is in 
applying that term to it, does not appear. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise XXVII. 
328. In the Imperative Mode, and Term of Address 

Parse as heretofore. Tell the terms of address, and their properties as parts of 
speech, and their modifiers, if they have any. 

1. Eouse ye, my comrades. Kouse ye, fellow- soldiers. 2. 
Awake, arise. 

Rem.— Here the subject is ye understood, and the term of address must be 
understood from the connection not shown here. 

3. My son, forget not my law. 4. "Blush, ministers and war- 
riors of imperial France." 5. Men, brethren, and fathers, 
hearken. 6. Kush on, ye brave. 7. Approach the tomb of 
Hamilton. 8. Censure me in your wisdom. 9. "This edition 
is in all typographical respects the most beautiful." 10. "Trust 
in the Lord with all thine heart." 11. "My son, despise not 
thou the chastening of the Lord, neither be weary of his cor- 
rection." 12. Devise not evil against thy neighbor. 13. Strive 
not with a man without cause. 14. Envy thou not the op- 
pressor. 15. Would you molest that quiet family in their 
domestic retreat? 16. Turn ye at my reproof. 17. Hate the 
evil, and love the good, and establish judgment in the gate. 
18. Gentlemen, I address you on a most solemn and interesting , 
subject. 19. Eemove thy feet from evil. 20. "Most potent, 
grave and reverend seigniors, my very noble and approved good 
masters, I have taken away this old man's daughter." 
21. "Cease from anger and forsake wrath." 22. Soldiers, 
attend to the word of command. 23. Both the sons and the 
daughters of my friend's family, present a charming example 
of filial attachment. 



INTEKJECTIONS. 

329. An Interjection is a word used to express emotion 
simply, and has no grammatical connection with any other 
word, either as subject, predicate or modifier, or by being modi- 
fied. 

It is often associated with the name of some person or per- 
sons addressed. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 93 

330. Some of the most common interjections are, Ah, aha, 
alack, alas, adieu, avaunt, ball, bravo, eh, fie, fudge, ha, halloo, 
hem: hey, hist, ho, humph, hurrah, hush, lo, 0, oh, poll. 
They are used as seen in the next examples for exercise.- 
In parsing interjections, only name them as such. 



Exercise XXVIII. 

331. Continuation in the Imperatiye Mode, Embracing 

Interjections. 

1. "0, ye children, attend to the words of my mouth." 
2. "0, ye simple, understand wisdom." 3. Turn, 0, backsliding 
children. 4. Offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and proclaim 
and publish the free offerings, 0, ye children of Israel. 5. So, 
I must leave you now, adieu. 6. "Ah ! he is a patient of that 
impudent quack doctor. 7. 0, my countrymen, will you do 
your duty? 8. I did only dream. 9. "0, coward conscience, 
how thou dost afflict me ! 10. Halloo, travelers, did you explore 
those caverns? 11. They are vast underground openings, 
gloomy and terrific. 

Rem.— Nouns and pronouns may be used independently in exclamation, as well 
as in address. They then resemble interjections in their nature. Witness the two 
next examples. 

12. 0, the times, 0, the manners, we live amidst scenes of 
anarchy and distress. 13. Ah me, the storm has come again. 
Hist, be silent. 14. Alas, the way is wearisome and long. 
15. Oho, Oho, thou art wise indeed. 16. Humph, such pretense 
will furnish a very poor excuse. 17. Trade justly, love mercy, 
and walk humbly with your God. 18. Furnish no just occasion 
of reproach. 19. "Alack, alack, Edmund, I like not this 
unnatural dealing." 20. Tush, tush, good sir, make no allusion 
to that subject. 21. Poh, poll, I never saw you before. 

22. "Hark, from the battlement of yonder tower, 

The solemn bell has tolled the midnight hour." ■ 

Exercise in Construction. 

332. Construct ten sentences in the imperative mode, Com. Form, some with 
and some without interjections. 



94 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

REVIEW OP THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 

AND A 

Brief General View of Grammar. 

333. The pupil has now learned all the different classes of 
words, and much regarding their use. These classes of words 
are called Parts of Speech, cf. §1. 

He should now learn to repeat them in their order as in the 
following sentence, and to give their definitions when required, 
as found in the sections referred to. 

1. The Parts of Speech are eight in number, namely, 
Noun §2, Adjective §37, Pronoun §140, Verb §73, 
Adverb §114, Preposition §131, Conjunction §104, 
and Interjection §329. 

Of the four distinct uses of the verb, only the first two have 
yet been explained. They will all be defined under their appro- 
priate heads, as follows : the Finite Verb § 76, Participle 
§ 196, Infinitive § 428, Gerund § 506. 

2. It is by the use of these eight Parts of Speech, in their 
various combinations and arrangements, that we express all our 
thoughts. 

The words of these eight classes, duly arranged and combined 
and uttered by the voice, make spoken language. 

And the same when presented to the eye in proper order, 
either by pen or type, make written language. 

334. Grammar is the science which treats of the proper 
formation, classification, combination and arrangement of words 
to produce language. 

All languages, and especially those of civilized nations, have 
many principles in common. But their differences require that 
each language should have its own grammar. 

335. English Grammar treats of the proper formation, 
classification, combination, and arrangement of the words of 
the English language. 

It is usual to treat of it in the four divisions of Orthog- 
raphy, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95 

I. Orthography treats of the formation of words from 
letters and syllables. 

II. Etymology treats of the classification and grammati- 
cal derivation of words and phrases.* 

III. Syntax treats of the combination of words into sen- 
tences. 

IV. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables and the 
arrangement of words in versification. 

336. This present treatise on grammar is confined to ety- 
mology and syntax. And these branches of the subject are 
treated unitedly, by unfolding their principles in the order best 
adapted to show readily and clearly the properties of the Parts 
of Speech, and their various uses. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

337. In the examples for practice thus far, no irregular 
verbs have been introduced except those found in the short list 
already given. But with the knowledge now acquired of the 
method of forming tenses from the Principal Parts, the pupil 
needs only to know these parts to enable him to form any tense 
whatever of irregular as well as of regular verbs. 

Recall to mind which parts of the verb are called principal 
parts. See § 220. 

Also how the regular and irregular conjugations are distin" 
guished. See §§ 231-233. 

338. - The Principal Parts of regular verbs are formed by one 
simple rule already given. §§ 97 and 200. 

339. The Principal Parts of irregular verbs are formed by 
no general rule, and need to be learned for each verb. 

340. The following list, contains all the irregular verbs in 
general use, with their principal parts in corresponding columns. 

*Note.— By grammatical derivation is meant the manner in which, to express 
grammatical relations, many words and phrases originate from other words con- 
sidered as ground forms or roots; such as plural nouns from singular, and the 
numerous forms of a verb from its simplest form. 

This differs essentially from historical derivation. 



9b ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Many of these are used in the regular conjugation as well as the 
irregular. Such are indicated by the small r following the first 
form. 

Compound verbs formed by a prefix are indicated by placing 
the prefix in italics, after the simple verb ; thus, "Come, be-, 
over'-," which signifies that become and overcome are conjugated 
in the same manner as the simple verb come. 



LIST OF VEEBS OF THE IEEEGULAE CONJUGATION. 

Present. 



,re-, 



Abide, r. 
Awake, r. 
Bake, r. 
Be oram, 
Bear, for- 
do carry,) 
Bear, 

(to produce) 
Beat. 
Begin, 
Behold, 
Bend. r. 
Bereave, r. 
Beseech, r. 
Bet, r. 
Bid, for 
Bind, ww 
Bite, 
Bleed, 
Blend, r. 
Bless, r. 
Blow, r. 
Break, 
Breed, 
Bring, 
Build, r. 
Burn, r. 
Burst, r. 
Buy, 
Cast, 
Catch, r. 
Chide, 
Choose, 
Cleave, 

(to split) 
Cleave, r. 

(to adhere) 
Cling, 
Clothe, r. 
Come, 

be- over-, 
Cost,. 
Creep r. 
Crow, r. 
Cut, 
Dare, r. 

(to venture) 
Deal, r. 
Dig, r. 
Dive, r. 
Do,(un-,over- 
Draw, 
Dream, r. 
Dress, r. 



Past. 
abode, 
awoke, 



Per. Partici 
abode. ■ 
awaked. 



Present, 
Drink, 



Past. 
drank. 

drunk, 



baked, 


baken. 


Drive, 


drove, 


was, 


been, 


Dwell, r. 


dwelt, 






Eat, 


ate, 


bore, 


borne. 


Fall. be-. 


fell, 






Feed, 


fed, 


bore, 


born. 


Feel, 


felt, 


beat, 


beaten, beat 


. Fight, 


fought, 


began, begun.begun. 


Find, 


found, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Flee/ 


fled, 


bent. 


bent. 


Fling, 


flung, 


bereft, 


bereft. 


Fly. 


flew, 


besought, 


besought. 


Forsake, 


fors"ook, 


bet, 


bet. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


bade, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


Freight, r. 


freighte( 


bound, 


bound. 






bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Get, be-,for- 
Gild, r. 


, got, gat, 


bled, 


bled. 


gilt, 


blent, 


blent. 


Gird, r. 




blest, 


blest. 


be- en-, un- 


. girt, 


blew, 


blown. 


Give, 




broke, 


broken, broke for-, mis-, 


gave, 


bred, 


bred. 


Go, 




brought, 


brought. 


fore-, under 


-.went, 


built. 


built. 


Grave, r. eft- 


, graved, 


burnt, 


burnt. 






burst, 


burst. 


Grind, 


ground, 


bought, 


bought. 


Grow, over-, 


grew, 


casV 


cast. 


Hang, r. 


hung, 


caught, 


caught. 


Have, 


had, 


chid, 


chidden, chid.Hear, over-. 


heard. 


chose, 


chosen. 


Heat, r. 


het, 






Heave, r. 


hove, 


clove, cleft, 


cloven, cleft. 


Hew, r. 

Hide. 

Hit. 


hewed, 

hid, 

hit, 


clove, 


cleaved. 


clung, 


clung. 


Hold, 




clad, 


clad. 


be-,up-,with- 


.held, 






Hurt, 


hurt, 


came, 


come. 


Keep. 


kept. 


cost. 


cost. 


Kneel, r. 


knelt, 


crept, 


crept. - 


Knit, r. , 


knit, , 


crew, 


crowed. 


Know, 


knew, 


cut, 


cut, 


Lade, (to load) laded. 






Lay, tn-j 


laid, 


durst, dared 


dared. 


Lead, mis-, 


led, 


delt, 


delt. 


Leap, r. over- 


.leapt. 


dug, 


dug. 


Learn, r. 


learnt, 


dove, 


dived. 


Leave, 


left, 


.did, 


done. 


Lend. 


lent, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Let, 


let, 


dreampt, 


dreampt. 


Lie,(torecline)\a,j, 


drest. 


drest. 


Light, r. 


lit, 



Per. Partici. 
drunken. 

drunk, 
driven, 
dwelt, 
eaten, eat. 
fallen, 
fed. 
felt, 
fought, 
found, 
fled, 
flung, 
flown, 
forsakan. 
frozen, 
fraught. 

• freighted, 
gotten, got. 
gilt. 

girt. 

given. 

gone, 
graven, 

graved, 
ground, 
grown, 
hung, 
had. 
heard, 
het. 
hoven. 
hewn. 

hidden, hid. 
hit. 

holden, held. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knelt. 

knit. 

known. 

laden. 

laid. 

led. 

leapt. 

learnt, 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lain, lien. 

lit. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



97 



List of Irbegulae Verbs— Continued. 



Present. 


Past. 


Per. Partici. 


Present. 


Past. 


Per. Partici. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost, 


Spell, r. mis- 


, spelt. 


spelt. 


Make, 


made. 


made. 


apend, mis-, 


spent. 


spent. 


Mean, 


meant. 


meant. 


Spill, r. 


spilt, 


spilt. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Mow. 


mowed, 


mown.mowedSpit, 


spit. 


spit. 


Pay, r,re-. 


paid, 


paid. 


Split, r. 


split, 


split. 


Pen, r. 






Spoil, r. 


spoilt. 


spoilt. 


(to inclose) 


pent, 


pent. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Plead, r. 


pled, 


pled. 


Spring, 


sprang. 


sprung. 


Prove, r. 


proved. 


proven, 

proved 


. Stand, 


sprung, 




Put, 


put, 


put. 


under-, with 


-, stood, 


stood. 


Quit, r. 


quit, 
read, 


quit. 


Stave, r. 


stove, 


stove. 


Read, 


read. 


Stay, r. 


staid, 


staid. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Rid. 


rid, 


rid. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden, rode 


. Sling, 


stung, 


stung. 


Ring. 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Rise, a-. 


rose, 


risen. 


Strew, r. t 


strewed, 


strewn. 


Rive, r. 


rived, 


riven. 


Stride, be-, 


Strode, 


stridden, 


Run, out-, 


ran. run, 


run. 






strid. 


Saw, r. 


sawed, 


fawn. 


Strike, 


struck, 


stricken, 


Say, 










struck. 


un-, gain-, 


said, 


said. 


String, r. 


strung, 


strung. 


See, fore-, 


saw, 


seen. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Seek. 


sought. 


sought. 


Swear, for-. 


swore, sware, sworn. 


Seethe, r. 


sod, 


sodden. 


Sweat, r. 


sweat. 


sweat. 


Sell, 


sold. 


sold. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Seed, 


sent, 


sent. 


Swell, r. 


swelled, 


swollen. 


Set, be-, re-, 


set, 


set. 


Swim, 


swam, 


swum. 


Shake, r. 


shook, 


shaken. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Shape, r. 


shaped, 
sheared, 


shapen. 








Shear, r. 


shorn. 


Take, be-, unde 


!-. mis-. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 




took, 


taken. 


Shine, r. 


shone, 


shone. 


Teach, mis-, 


un-, 




Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 




taught, 


taught. 


Shoot, over-, 


shot. 


shot. 


Tear, 


lore, tare, 


torn, 


Show,* 


showed, 


shown. 


Tell, fore-. 


told, 


told. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Think, be-. 


thought, 


thought. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunken, 


Thrive, r. 


throve, 


thriven. 




shrank, 


shrunk 


. Throw, r. over-, 




Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 




threw, 


thrown. 


Sing, 


sang, sung, 
sank, sunk, 


sung. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Sink, 


sunken, sunk.Tread, re-, 


trod, 


trodden, trod. 


Sit, 


sate, sat, 


sat. 


"Wax, r. 


waxed. 


waxen. 


Slay, 


slew. 


slain, 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Sleep, r. 


slept, 
slid, 


slept, 


Weave, un-, 


wove, 


woven. 


Slide, r. 


slidden, slid. 


Wed. r. 


wed, 


wed. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Weep, r. 


wept, 


wept. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Wet, r. 


wet, 


wet. 


Slit, r. 


slit, 


slit. 


Whet, r. 


whet, 


whet. 


Smell, r. 


smelt, 


smelt. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Wind, r. un-, 


wound. 


wound. 


Sow, r. 


sowed, 


sown. 


Work, r. over 


-.wrought. 


wrought. 


Speak, be-, 


spoke, 


spoken, 


Wreathe, r. 


wreathed. 


wreathen. 




spake, 


spoke. 


Wring, r. 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Speed, r. 


sped, 


sped, 


Write, re-, 


wrote, 


wrilten. 



sho. 



Rem.— This verb is sometimes spelled shew, but with the same pronunciation, 



t Also written strew, strow and sometimes straw. 



-7 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



BE, DO, HAVE, AND WILL, AS PEINCIPAL VEEBS. 

341. The verbs, be, do, and have, though before given as 
auxiliary verbs, are included in the preceding list, because they 
are also used as principal verbs. The peculiar use of the verb 
to be as a principal verb has been already fully illustrated. 
§ 182 sq. 

342. Do is a principal verb, when not joined with another 
verb to make an Emphatic Form. 

343. Have is a principal verb when not used to form the 
tense of some other verb. It is considered transitive, because 
it admits a direct object after it like those transitive verbs which 
declare an action. See § 92. 

344. The verb will is not included in the preceding list, 
because, though irregular as an auxiliary, it is regular in mod- 
ern usage when a principal verb. Its 2d and 3d persons are 
then ivillest and wills, and its past tense and perfect participle 
ivilled. 

Exercise XXIX. 

345. This exercise contains a large number of irregular verbs. 

Parse as in the preceding exercises, and give particularly the principal parts of 
the verb. 

1. Pharisees do their good works for show. 2. They have 
their reward. 3. Those truants made many excuses. 4. Thou 
tellest wondrous things. 5. Father wills my return. 6. "She 
hath wrought a good work upon me." — Mat. 26 : 10. 7. Girard 
willed large sums for the establishment of a college. 8. The 
gardener's bean vines wound round poles. 9. Those young 
sailors wept over their lost companions. 10. Most men will 
their property for the benefit of their children. 11. The 
glory of the Lord abode on Sinai. 12. Out of Gallilee 
ariseth no prophet. 13. Adam begot a son in his own likeness, 
after his image. 14. Ye have bereaved me of my children. 
15. Has the dog bitten the child ? 16. For this thing I besought 
the Lord thrice. 17. "We beheld his glory, the glory of the 
only begotten of the Father full of grace and truth." 18. They 
bound Samson with two new cords. 19. Would the man have 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 99 

bled to death? 20. "My well-beloved built a tower in the 
midst of his vineyard." — Isa. 5 : 2. 21. Solomon burnt incense 
upon the altar before the Lord. 22. The new wine will burst 
the bottles. 23. Suddenly the sound of the signal gun broke 
the stillness of the night. 24. "Thou hast cast all my sins 
behind thy back."— Isa. 38 : 17. 25. "The Lord thy God hath 
chosen him out of all thy tribes." 26. The hands having 
furled the sails, hove the vessel slowly towards the shore. 
27. The thieves having hidden their stolen treasure in the 
ground, hid themselves in the woods. 28. "The battle went 
against Saul, and the archers hit him." 29. "Thy right hand 
hath holden me up." 30. "The king held out the golden scep- 
ter." 31. "They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy 
mountain." 32. "Lord, lay not tliis sin to their charge. " — Acts, 
7:60. 33. "I led him throughout all the land of Canaan." 
34. "He; leaping up, stood, and walked, and entered with them 
into the temple." 35. " I have not lent on usury." 36. "At 
thy word I will let down the net." 37. "They drew and lifted 
up Joseph out of the pit." 38. "Ephron dwelt among the chil- 
dren of Heth." 39. "So he drove out the man, and placed, at 
the east of the garden of Eden, Cherubim and a flaming sword." 
40. " Whither the Lord thy God hath driven thee." 41. He 
would have fed them also with the finest of the wheat. 
42. "Then all the disciples forsook him and fled." 43. They 
have stricken me, they have beaten me, and I felt it not. 
44. "Simon Peter girt his fisher's coat unto him, and did cast 
himself into the sea." 45. "Behold, I have graven thee upon 
the palms of my hands." 46. "Wisdom bath builded her 
house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars." 47. "Joseph sent 
ten asses laden with the good things of Egypt, and ten she 
asses laden with corn, and bread, and meat, for his father by the 
way." 48. "Job arose, and rent his mantle, and fell down upon 
the ground, and worshipped." 49. Those talented lawyers pled 
the prisoner's cause most eloquenty. 50. The boy having put 
on his coat, put the little chickens in a basket, and will put 
them under the old hen. 51. "Send thine hand from above, 
rid me, and deliver me out of great waters, from the hand of 
strange children." — Ps. 144:7. 52. "Thou saidst, aha, against 
my sanctuary." — Ezek. 25 :3. 53. "I saw Absalom hanged in 
an oak." 54. Those desperadoes hanged an innocent man. 
55. "The preacher sought out and put in order many proverbs." 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

56. "Seek ye first the kingdom of God and his righteousness." 

57. The sound of a shaken leaf shall chase them. 58. Paul 
sailed from Greece into Syria, having shorn his head at Cen- 
chrea. 59. "Lo, the angel of the Lord came upon them, and 
the glory of the Lord shone about them, and they were sore 
afraid." 60. "Stand, therefore, having your loins girt about 
with truth, and having on the breastplate of righteousness, and 
your feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace. " 

Therefore is a conj., connecting this clause with what precedes it in the epistle. 

Exercise in Construction. 

346. Construct thirty sentences in the use of the irreg. verbs of the preced- 
ing list. Let there be only one sentence with any one verb, and only two in any 
one tense of the same mode. 

EXPLANATION OF THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

Definition repeated from § 291. 

347. The Progressive Form of any verb is made by 
annexing its present participle to each specific form of the verb 
to be. 

Recite from the table of conjugations the verb to be, with a present participle 
annexed to each specific form, as indicated by the fourth column. 

348. In signification the Progressive Form denotes the con- 
tinuance of the action or state expressed by the participle, at 
the time indicated by the tense form to which it is annexed. 
Thus, is walking denotes the action in continuance at the pres- 
ent time, ivas walking in past time, and ivill be walking in future time. 

2. The Progressive Form expresses the time of an action or 
state, with more precision than the common form. 

Exercise XXX. 

349. Including Verbs in the Progressive Form, 
with Others. 

In parsing a form like is growing, take the words together as 

one verb, give the conjugation and class, term it the Progressive 

Form, and give its properties in the order of the synopsis. 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 101 

1. The grass is growing. 2. She is using the new book. 
3. The boy was fishing. 4. The cattle were destroying the crop. 
5. Friends of learning, would you not do homage at the shrine 
of literature? 6. "I am doing a great work, I cannot come 
down. "' — Neh. 6:3. 7. " I was walking in the garden yesterday. 
8. The fruit-grower is trimming. his pear trees to-day. 9. Who 
is slandering me? 10. We shall be. traveling on the road to 
New York to-morrow. 11. We find a Solomon discovering his 
error. [Discovering a participle modifying Solomon.] 12. Were 
they driving too fast? 13. In reverence to the monarch, they 
were bowing themselves to the earth. 14. Great actions and 
striking occurrences having excited a temporary admiration, 
often pass away and leave no lasting results affecting the pros- 
perity and happiness of communities. 15. At the time of the 
expected transit of Venus, thousands of astronomers will be 
gazing upward into the heavens. 1.6. "I am bringing such 
evils upon Jerusalem and Juclah." 17. Solomon was building 
his house during thirteen years. 18. Saul was consenting to 
Stephen's death. 19. "Arise and be doing." 20. Happiness 
consists in a quiet series of almost imperceptible enjoyments. 
21. Every free breath is an enjoyment. 22. "His sons and 
his daughters were eating and drinking wine in their elder 
brother's house." — Job 1:13. 23. He maybe coming. 24. Are 
the boys studying? 25. I had been plowing. 26. You might 
be preparing. 27. Had you been playing? 28. I am existing 
upon a little spot surrounded by an immense unknown expanse. 
29. Art thou going to the Third Ward school? 30. She will 
have been watching constantly. 31. Twilight is weeping over 
the pensive rose. 32. The heedless guard were carousing in the 
guard house. 33. At the same time, the robbers were plunder- 
ing in another part of the city. 34. "Sir, we have been trying 
arguments for the last ten years." 35. His two sisters were 
dunning him daily, without effect, for the small annuity from 
their father's estate. 36. The truly good man is ever looking 
forward to higher and holier attainments in spiritual life. 
37. Heaven has bounteously lengthened out our lives. 38. W T e 
have been discoursing of infancy, childhood and youth. 
39. We shall treat of nature in her joy and gladness. 40. She 
is continually changing her mind. 41. "Humanity with all its 
fears, with all the hopes of future years, is hanging breathless 
on thy fate." 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise in Construction. 

350. Construct sentences in the Progressive Form, so that there shall be one 
at least in each tense of every mode, and give variety in their persons and num- 
bers. 

EXPLANATION OF THE PASSIVE FOBM. 

351. The Passive Form of a verb is made by annexing 
its perfect participle to each specific form of the verb to be. 

This Form may be recited from the table, in the same manner 
as the Progressive, only substituting the perfect participle for 
the present. 

352. The Passive Form belongs chiefly to transitive 
verbs. 

353. The Common Form of a transitive verb is styled the 
Active Voice, and the Passive Form the Passive Voice. 

354. A verb in the Active Voice declares an action per- 
formed by the subject. 

It will admit and usually has a direct object after it ; as, John 
writes a letter, James sent a message. 

355. A verb in the Passive Voice declares an action per- 
formed on the subject. 

The agent that performs the action, if named, is expressed 
by a noun or pronoun with the preposition by; as, A letter is 
written by John, A message was sent by James. 

356. Notice, in these examples, that in the Active Voice the 
subject is the one who writes the letter or sends the message; 
and in the Passive Voice the subject denotes that which is 
written, or that which is sent. It is that which receives the 
action, or upon which the action is performed. And this is 
the characteristic difference between the Active and Passive voice. 

357. A few intransitive verbs are used in the Passive Form, 
but with no such signification as characterizes the Passive Form 
of a transitive verb. The Common and Passive Forms of in- 
transitive verbs are not essentially different in meaning. Both 
have simply an intransitive signification ; as, for example, Com. 
Form, The messenger has come ; Pas. Form, The messenger 
is come. And so, He has gone, He is gone ; Babylon has 
fallen, "Babylon is fallen." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 

358. And hence the term voice, which indicates the distinc- 
tion above explained, between the Com. and Pas. Forms of 
transitive verbs does not properly apply to intrans. verbs. "Is 
fallen," though a Pas. Form, is not a Pas. voice, that is, it 
does not express the receiving of an action by the subject. 

359. A declaration made in the Active voice may be 
changed into the Passive, retaining nearly the same mean- 
ing, by making the direct object of the verb in the Active Voice, 
its subject in the Passive, and bringing in that term which 
was subject in the Active, and consequently the agent, with the 
preposition by; Active voice, James learns grammar ; Passive 
voice, Grammar is learned by James. The horse drew the car- 
riage ; The carriage was drawn by the horse. Compare exam- 
ples given above, §§354 and 355. 

360. In like manner the Passive voice may be changed 
into the Active, by reversing the preceding process, and 
taking the agent, (if expressed with the Passive) for subject and 
the subject for direct object. If no agent is expressed with the 
Passive, some agent as he, they, or some appropriate noun, must 
be introduced as subject. 

E.g. Pas. Voice, The apples were stolen by the tramps. 
Act. Voice, The tramps stole the apples. Pas., The man was 
murdered. Act., Somebody murdered the man. 

Exercise XXXI. 

Including Verbs of the Passive Form. 

361. In the following exercise the first three examples are given in both 
forms, Act. and Pas. to show how the changes from one to the other are produced. 
In the other examples tell what voice each verb is, and change the active into the 
passive, and the passive into the active, preserving the same mode and tense. 

1. The mother loves her daughter; The daughter is loved by 
her mother.. 2. The millwright built that mill; That mill was 
built by a millwright. 3. A good miller makes good flour; 
Good flour is made by a good miller. 4. The servant kindles a 
fire. 5. Somebody struck William. 6. A man was killed by 
somebody. 7. The soldiers plundered the country. 8. The 
father has been loved by the son. 9. Had the field been har- 
vested by the reapers? 10. The pirates sunk the ship. 11. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Fallen wood may be burnt by foresters. 12. The army will 
vanquish the enemy. 13. Those good boys were loved by their 
parents and teachers. 14. That sack of corn would have been 
lifted by a strong man very easily. 15. Dishonest practices 
should be detested by every young man. 16. That man will 
have assisted many poor persons. 17. The hostler should have 
brought our horses sooner. 13. Has the money been paid to 
the creditors? 19. The cave may have been left by the robbers 
before this time. 20. My work can be finished by noon. 21. 
Many excellent watches have been made by the workmen in the 
Springfield Watch-Factory. 22. Each seperate part of a watch 
is made by a different workman. 23. At length, all the parts 
are combined in systematic order and constitute a finished 
watch. 24. What delayed the arrival of the cars? 25. Some 
terrible accident may have happened on the road. 26. Milton's 
"Paradise Lost" will always be esteemed by every intelligent 
reader. 27. Will my picture be finished to-day ? And can it be 
sent to my room? 28. The time is too short; I will send it to 
your room to-morrow evening. 29. I shall have left town be- 
fore that time. 30. It will be more perfectly finished on your 
return. 31. The blue peaks of the distant mountains succes- 
sively appeared. 32. We might have been reading together at 
the time. 33. Priscilla is now writing more carefully. 34. The 
visitors may have been greatly disappointed. 35. Keproach did 
not spare Braddock even in the grave. 36. "By the skies above 
us, by our fathers' graves, be men to-day, Quirites." 37. The 
field will not be planted in proper season. 38. These scenes 
once so delightful, no longer please him. 39. Could more 
orders have been filled by you during this month? 40. "And 
my soul from out that shadow shall be lifted never more." — Poe. 

Exercise in Construction. 

362. Construct sentences in the passive voice, one at least in each tense of 
every mode, and give them variety in person and number. 

PAETICIPLES OF THE PKOGBESSIVE AND PASSIVE 

FOKMS. 

363. The Present Participle of some verb is always used in 
making a progressive form. But a present participle of the pro- 
gressive form, after the analogy of other progressive forms, made 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 105 

by connecting another present participle to that of the verb to 
be; thus, being learning, "being growing," is of very rare occur- 
rence, and not elegant. 

The forms been turning, been turned, per. participles, Prog, and Pass. Forms in 
the table, are not in use as participles. The per. participles turned, loved, Com. 
Form (not pas. in form not made by any annexation to the verb, to be} are pas. in 
meaning as participles, but trans, in forming tenses of trans, verbs. 

364. The other Progressive and . Passive Participles will be 
found illustrated in the exercise following. Their forms may be 
seen in the table of conjugations, (§ 285) made like other Prog, 
and Pas. forms. 

The same forms and the corresponding Common Forms, when 
used as gerunds will be illustrated in another place. 

2. In their Import, the Progressive participles denote an 
action or state in continuance ; the Passive participles, an action 
or state completed. 



Exercise XXXII. 

365. Including Participles of the Progressive and Passive 

Forms. 

Tell the kinds of participles and parse as heretofore. 

1. The sick man having been sleeping for some time, awoke 
in an improved state. 2. The line of battle being formed on 
an eminence, favored success. 3. The tent having been pitched, 
afforded a comfortable shelter. 4. The harvest men having 
been laboring very hard, sought refreshment and rest at the 
close of the day. 5. Great Britain being surrounded on all 
sides by the sea, has a climate free from the extremes of heat 
and cold. 6. The polar bear being found only in the Arctic re- 
gions, is a curiosity to us. 7. The steamboat having been 
taking in coal at the landing, was delayed about half an hour. 
8. The boys having been playing very zealously, had not heard 
the school bell. 9. The travelers being pursued by a ravenous 
beast, take shelter in a cave with a narrow entrance. 10. The 
sheep having been sheared, were turned into the pasture. 11. 
Their horses having been reared in Arabia, were the finest in 
the world. 12. Having crossed the Alps, I can quite corrobo- 
rate your opinion. 13. The young men having been hunting 



10G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

squirrels in the forest through the clay, returned late in the 
evening. 14. Shakespeare being esteemed for his accurate de- 
lineation of character, is eagerly read by the students of human 
nature. 15. The boy having been severely punished, afterwards 
told the truth. 16. A sentence transposed, still means the same 
thing. IT. The reveille being beaten, arouses the soldiers, at 
once, from their slumbers. 18. The younger pupils having been 
amusing themselves on the play-ground, came promptly into the 
school-room at the. sound of the bell. 

Exercise in Construction. 

366. Construct twenty sentences in the use of participles; using participles 
of as many different kinds as possible. 

THE PEOPOSITION EXPLAINED. 

367. The learner who has pursued the instructions of this 
book, thus far, has acquired a good knowledge of the leading 
features of all the Parts of Speech, and most of the classifica- 
tions and forms which arise under them. This is a preparation 
of materials for that which remains to be done. 

As in the erection of buildings, so in the structure of sen- 
tences, the preparation of materials embraces a large part of 
the labor. The working up of the materials into a finished 
structure, not only seems more effective, but is likewise more 
agreeable. 

368. We are prepared at this stage of our progress to 
arrange the knowledge already acquired into the frame-work of 
the proposition, and to introduce the general terms of analysis. 
The way will be thus prepared for a new departure, for a more 
independent progress, and a full and critical analysis of the 
language in general. 

But we must still abide close by what we have already gained, 
and advance gradually. 

369. We have seen that a finite verb is a word by which 
something is declared, and that of which something is declared 
is the subject of the verb ; as, Men walk. Here we have a 
declaration composed of the least number of words possible in 
English. But one or both of the words in the declaration may 
be modified; thus, Old men ivalk slowly. Here we apply the 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 107 

term subject to the phrase old men, and the word men is called 
the simple subject or base of the subject, and old men the com- 
plex subject, for the declaration is now about all that is expressed 
by the phrase old men. 

But we cannot extend the term, verb, to include its modifier, 
and we employ the term 'predicate to denote what is declared or 
predicated of the subject; thus, ivalks slowly is the complex 
predicate, which expresses all that is declared of old men. But 
the simple predicate or base of the predicate is the verb walk. 
cf. §§ 185 sqq. and § 192. 

370. In the declaration, The boy constructs a kite, the sim- 
ple subject boy is modified by the definite article the, and the 
simple predicate constructs is modified by the direct object kite, 
which in turn is modified by the indefinite article a. The com- 
plex subject is The boy, and the complex predicate constructs a 
kite. 

In the following declaration, The ingenious boy skillfully 
constructs a splendid kite, we have the same parts as before, 
and in addition the adjective ingenious, modifying boy, the 
adverb skillfully, modifying constructs, and the adjective splen- 
did, modifying kite. The simple subject and simple predicate, 
termed, when thus modified, the base of the subject, and base 
of the predicate, are the same as before ; but the complex 
subject is now The ingenious boy, and the complex predicate 
skillfully constructs a sjrfendid kite. And thus the subject and 
predicate may be enlarged to any extent that does not involve 
obscurity or inelegance. 

WHAT CONSTITUTES A PBOPOSITION. 

371. In accordance with the preceding illustrations, we 
have these important definitions. 

I. The Subject is that of which something is declared, 

II. The Predicate is that which is declared of the subject. 

III. The Subject and Predicate united constitute a Propo- 
sition. 

372. No terms of grammar have more need to be well 
understood than these. A knowledge of the proposition is the 
basis of all philosophy of language. It assumes a great variety 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of forms, but always retains certain definite characteristics. It 
may consist as we have seen of only two words, a simple sub- 
ject and a simple predicate, each unmodified ; as, Men ivalk. 
Fire burns. Or it may be so expanded as to fill half a page 
or more. Yet the simple subject and the simple predicate are 
its fundamental elements, the foundation of the whole structure, 
and nearly all other words and phrases are built upon these, 
and are in some way directly or indirectly modifiers of these. 

373. All parts that modify the subject, constitute together 
with it a complex subject ; and all that modify the predicate in 
like manner constitute a complex predicate. 

374. The various parts of the proposition, both words and 
phrases, which enter in as modifiers, are termed subordinate 
elements. 



DEFINITION OP TERMS 

EMPOYED IN DESCRIBING PROPOSITIONS AND SENTENCES. 

PHRASES AND ELEMENTS. 

375. A phrase consists of two or more related words 
arranged in grammatical order, but not constituting a proposi- 
tion. 

376. A separable phrase is one whose words can be 
intelligently parsed separately ; as, in haste, is lame, being sick. 

377. An inseparable phrase is one whose words cannot 
be intelligently parsed separately ; as, by and by, in vain, to run, 
may have loved. 

378. An element is any part of a proposition which, as a 

single word or united expression, stands related to any other 

part, as subject, predicate, or modifier. 

Examples in the following sentence. — "The valiant army could 
have overpowered the enemy in a short time." Army is an 
element, constituting the simple subject. The and valiant are 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 109 

elements modifying army. Could have overpowered is an element 
constituting the simple predicate. Enemy is an element modi- 
fying could have overpowered, as direct object, and the an 
element modifying enemy. In time (a prepositional phrase) is 
an element modifying could have overpowered, and constituting 
the base of the element in a short time, which is an enlarged 
element modifying the same. A and short are elements modi- 
fying time. The whole subject is The valiant army, and the whole 
predicate, could have overpowered the enemy in a short time. Each 
of these last answer to the definition of an element, and thus 
it appears that one element may include several subordinate 
elements. 

Modification and Construction. 

379. Modification is the state of connection by which 
one word or element of a proposition affects the meaning of 
another ; and the word or element by which the effect is pro- 
duced is called a modifier. 

380. We recognize the relation of words as modifiers or as 
being modified from their form, or position, or the natural rela- 
tion of the meaning. 

The fact of these relations we learn to a great extent in the 
important process of learning to talk. As grammarians we 
must systematize our knowledge and make it more particular 
and extensive. 

381. The relation of elements in a proposition is in general 
terms styled their construction. 

382. The relation of subject and predicate to each other, 
and the relation of any element to that which it modifies, may 
be termed their higher construction. 

383. The relation of an element to that by which it is modi- 
fied, may be termed its lower construction. 

384. There is often a marked difference between the higher 
and lower construction of an element. The higher construction 
of the verb is different in its different uses. These differences 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

distinguish between the finite verb, the infinitive, the participle, 
and the gerund. But in their lower construction these several 
branches of the verb are all alike, for any of them may be mod- 
ified by an objective or adverbial element. 



CLASSIFICATION OP ELEMENTS. 

385. Elements are classed in reference to their import, their 
form, and their composition. 

ELEMENTS CLASSED BY THEIB IMPOET. 

386. In respect to their import, elements form five divi- 
sions, two principal and three subordinate. 

387. The two principal elements are the subject and 

the predicate, which have been already sufficiently explained. 
These being necessary to constitute a proposition, are found 

in every instance where any thing is declared. 

388. The three subordinate elements are the adjective 
element, the adverbial element, and the objective element. Of these 
one, or all, or neither may be found in a proposition. 

Adjective and Adverbial Elements. 

389. An adjective element is either an adjective or 

some word or united expression modifying a noun after the 

manner of an adjective. 

Such are the italic words in the following examples. The 
active little girl picked a basket of flowers. Henry's sportive 
kitten amused the younger members of the family. The little 
boy's mittens protect his hands. 

Rem.— It will be noticed that the possessive form of the noun or pronoun 
generally makes an adjective element, and the prepositional phrase, generally an 
adjective or adverbial element. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ill 

390. An adverbial element is either an adverb or some 

united expression forming a modification after the manner of 

an adverb. 

Witness the italic words in the following sentences : In 
the summer the husbandmen labor industriously. Our time 
was uniformly spent in school. In great confusion the terrified 
audience hastened from the burning building. 



Exercise XXXIII. 

391. Including Particularly Adjective and Adverbial 

Elements. 

Tell the subject and predicate, the adjective and adverbial elements, and what 
the subordinate elements modify. Parse all words. 

1. "The long-suffering of God waited in the clays of Noah." 
2. America was discovered by Columbus. 3. Will you go with 
me into the garden? 4. He was beaten with many stripes. 5. 
The water from the rising river has flowed into many cellars 
along its banks. 6. "In my Father's house are many mansions. " 
7. We went over the river through the corn fields into the 
woods yonder. 8. I am not satisfied as to that affair. 9. He 
went from St. Louis across the plains to California. 10. Light 
moves in straight lines and in all directions from the point of 
emission. 11. I will work in the sphere of my profession. 12. 
She turned to the old man with a lovely smile upon her face. 
13. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 14. A soldier of the 
legion was dying in Algiers. 15. "Hope and fear are the bane 
of human life." 16. What can compensate for the loss of char- 
acter? 17. Man's necessity is God's opportunity. 18. That 
agent is a vain conceited man. 19. A life of prayer is a life of 
Heaven. 20. The panther's track was fresh in the snow. 21. 
The black crags behind the snow-capped hills tower in lonely 
grandeur into the clear blue sky. 22. "Towards night the 
school-master walked over to the cottage." 23. "God's balance 
watched by angels is hung across the sky." 24. In God's sight 
man's strength is weakness. 25. Wisdom's ways are ways of 
pleasantness and all her paths are peace. 26. Prayer is the 
contrite sinner's voice. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

392. An objective element expresses that which receives 
the action of the verb, or which has a personal interest in what 
the verb imports, or is in some sense the result of what it 
imports. 

393. Objective elements are of three kinds, the direct 
object, the indirect object, and the attributive object. 

394. The direct Object expresses what the action of a 
transitive verb is performed upon or in producing ; as, The ox 
eats grass. The angry man excites a quarrel. This object has 
been before explained. § 88 sq. 

395. The indirect object expresses a person to or for 

whom something is said to be or to be done ; and to whom the 

action or state is considered to be a matter of interest ; as, The 

teacher gave a book to Henry. 

The father procured a farm forhis son, or, The father pro- 
cured his son a farm. The mother gave Lizzie a present, or, 
The mother gave a present to Lizzie. 

Obs.— The indirect object, when following [transitive verbs in the active voice, 
is sometimes placed before the direct object, and sometimes after it. If placed be- 
fore it, it is generally without the preposition; if after it, the preposition must usually 
be expressed. 

396. There may be an indirect object after an intransitive 
verb, or a verb in the passive voice ; as, The battle, sir, is not 
to the strong alone. Honor pertains not to them. To each man 
honor is given. Supreme and undivided honors should be paid 
to Goodness and Truth. Her goodness and truth are personified. 

Obs.— The indirect object always names a person or sentient being or some- 
thing personified. Some expressions not of sentient being strongly resemble in 
their use indirect objects; as, He gave the last touch to the picture. But such are 
better classed as adverbial elements; for if we extend indirect objects beyond sen- 
tient beings, there is no distinct line between these objects and adverbial elements. 
At least no such line has been discovered. 

397. The attributive object after the active voice of a 
transitive verb expresses an attribute of the direct object as the 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 113 

result of the import of the verb, and after the passive voice or 
an intransitive verb an attribute of the subject as the result of 
the import of the verb ; as, The teacher appointed Melton mon- 
itor. Here monitor expresses an attribute of Melton as the 
result of the action expressed in the verb appointed. 

398. The same thought may be expressed in the passive 
voice ; as, Melton was appointed monitor by the teacher. Here, 
as in the active voice, monitor expresses the result of the import 
of the verb, and the attribute of the same term Melton, which 
has become the subject. And hence monitor is attributive 
object as before, according to the definition. 

399. Arnold became a traitor. Here traitor expresses an 
attribute of Arnold as the result of a change in him which is 
expressed by the intransitive verb became. 

400. The attributive object may be an adjective as well as 
a noun ; as, They bleach cloth white; The sky appeared beauti- 
ful; The rose smells sweet. 



Exercise XXXIV. 

401. Embracing Direct, Indirect, and Attributive Objects, 
Diversified by Other Examples. 

Among other features, notice particularly the different kinds of objective ele- 
ments. 

1. The teacher gave John a book, or he gave a book to John. 
2. The parents named him Josiah. 3. The people elected 
Lincoln president. 4. Buchanan had been elected president. 
5. Mr. Hodge, the farmer, hired Mr. Olds, the mason. 6. My 
friend was called a good workman. 7. The Komans elected 
Cicero, the celebrated orator, consul. 8. They called him the 
deliverer of his country. 9. "Every morning on the moor 
lands, did we hear the ringing of the copses." 10. The 
merchant allowed me credit. 11. John brought me a seat. 

12. Having discovered Hispaniola Columbus returned to Spain. 

13. The landlord will provide them lodgings. 14. The kind 
neighbor had promised the children a ride. 15. The farmer 

-8 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAtL 

would have sold me a horse. 16. We can all secure an inherit- 
ance incorruptible and undefiled, in another world. 17. "Christ 
being raised from the dead dieth no more." 18. He speaks 
very fluently and reasons justly. 19. The stranger showed us 
an easier and more agreeable way. 20. The servant behaved 
impertinently to his master. 21. Will you follow your friend's 
counsel? 22. He has given you some wholesome advice. 
23. Tell me the story. 24. That gentleman has been elected 
mayor of our city. 25. John looks cold. I feel aguish. 

26. Ants appear industrious. Avarice has become his master. 

27. He seems dejected. It was deemed inexpedient. 28. The 
wdnd is roaring furiously in the woods, on the mountain side. 
29. His home lay low in the valley. 30. " We did esteem him 
smitten of God." 

Rem.— Here a participle is attributive object. In the next we find an attributive 
obj. to a participle. 

31. "A lad made orphan by a winter's shipwreck was playing 
among the waste-" 32. His father's house stands a ruin. 

33. Minerva's temple stood a land-mark to the mariner. 

34. The fool's prosperity becomes his destruction. 35. That 
sailor's escape seemed a miracle. 36. My neighbor's energy 
secured him independence. 37. Sulivan bought his brother a 
farm. 38. The dress well became her. She became proud. 

Rem.— Notice the different meanings of the same verb in these sentences and 
the different objects. 

39. The unfaithfulness of his friend became to him a sore 
trial. (Two different objects.) 40. To the hero that day was 
a proud day. 41. I saw six swans on that clear glassy lake. 
42. The mining company appointed him manager. 43. The 
king created George Monk duke of Albemarle. 

Rem.— An attributive object is sometimes introduced by a conjunction, for 
or as. 

44. We chose him for our leader. 45. The landlord employed 
Christopher as steward. 46. Appoint Eichard as clerk. 
47. "Being justified by faith we have peace with God through 
our Lord Jesus Christ." 48. The character of the man having 
been ascertained caused his disgrace. 49. My garden has 
yielded me a large crop. 50. "I made me great works." — ■ 
Eccl. 2:4. 51. "Eiches certainly make themselves wings and 
fly away." 52. "Make thee an ark of gopher wood." 53. "They 
softly lie and sweetly sleep low in the ground." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115 

54. "Flag of the brave, thy folds shall fly 

The sign of hope and triumph high. " — Drake. 

55. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music. 

56. The distant hills look blue. 

ELEMENTS CLASSED BY THEIti FORM. 

402. In respect to their form, elements are arranged in 
three divisions, called the first, second, and third class. 

403. An element of the first class consists of a single 
word, or an inseparable phrase ; as, each word in the following 
sentence : The practiced skater cuts his curves gracefully. 

The next has two first class elements of a single word each, 
and two of an inseperable phrase each. They will go abroad by 
and by. Any verb, except the copula, is with its auxiliaries a 
first class element. 

404. An element of the second class consists of a sep- 
arable phrase of which one part does not modify another, but 
both or all are necessary to constitute the element ; as, in 
case of a preposition with its object, and the copula with its 
predicate noun or adjective. 

The italic phrases in the following sentences are examples. 
A merchant of Chicago purchased wheat in Minneajjolis and 
shipped it to New York, for sale. Willie's hands are Warm, 
in his mittens. When the copula is taken with a noun or 
adjective, or any substitute for a noun, to make a declaration, 
it forms that important element called a second class predicate. 
Compare §§ 185, 439, 477. 

405. An element of the third class is a proposition 
forming an element in another proposition. 

Rem.— Such a combination forms a complex proposition, and can be explained 
better after all the forms of simple propositions are understood. 

ELEMENTS CLASSED BY THEIE COMPOSITION. 

406. Elements in respect to their composition are arranged 
in three divisions, simple, complex, and compound. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

407. A simple element is one not modified by another 
element, or one considered without its modifiers ; as, Ships sail 
on ivater. 

Here are three elements, each simple in itself; two are 
first class, subject and base of the predicate, one second class 
adverbial, on water. But if we consider the whole predicate 
together, sail on ivater, it is a complex predicate. 

Smith had been elected mayor. Here are three simple first 
class elements. 

408. When words that would form a simple element by 
themselves are modified by one or more subordinate elements, 
the united expression forms a complex element. 

That part which is modified by another part is called the base 
of the element, and any element which modifies the base is 
termed a subordinate element. 

409. • In the following sentence we have a complex subject 
and a complex predicate. The golden grain leaves in the breeze. 
Grain waves, would be a simple subject and simple predicate. 
Grain is the base of the subject, and the and golden are subor- 
dinate adjective elements. Waves is the base of the predicate. 
In the breeze is a complex adverbial element of the second class, 
of which in breeze is the base, modified by the. 

410. In the following sentence we have a complex objective 
element. Kabbits spoiled father s beautiful garden. Garden is 
the base of this element modified by father's and beautiful. 

Obs.— This complex element is first class because the base is first class. A 
complex element is always considered of the same class as its base. 

411. In the following we have a complex adjective element 
and a complex adverbial element. Those very mischievous rabbits 
spoiled father's beautiful garden in a short time. Mischievous is 
the base of the adjective element. In time is the base of the 
adverbial element. 

The whole proposition to which these parts belong has of 
course a complex subject and complex predicate. 

412. When two or more elements either simple or complex 
are united by a conjunction, and have a like relation to some 
other part of the proposition, they constitute a compound 
element. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 117 

Examples. Compound adjective element ; An industrious and 
frugal man gains a competence. Compound objective element ; 
The man manufactures boots, shoes, and slippers. 

Obs.— The conjunction may be implied only; as, "Alfred the Great was a brave, 
pious, patriotic prince." "The discourse was beautifully, elegantly, forcibly deliv- 
ered." 

Exercise XXXV. 

413. Point out and classify all elements, principal and Subordinate. Tell 
whether they are first, second or third class; whether simple, complex or com- 
pound; whether adjective, adverbial or objective; and if an object, whether it is 
direct, indirect or attributive. Study examples in models. 

1. Damp air is unwholesome. 2. A little attention will rec- 
tify some errors. 3. Few days pass without some clouds. 4. We 
must have a little space between the lines. 5. Behave your- 
selves wisely. 6. "Sorrow makes the night morning and the 
morning night." — Shakspeare. 7. Having sold his patrimony, 
he engaged in merchandise. 8. He has served them with his 
utmost ability. 9. I have a regard for him. 

Rem.— For him may be considered an adjective element modifying regard, or 
an indirect object after have. Since the sense would be essentially the same either 
way, it is of no importance which we term it. And this fact in language, it is well 
for the learner to know. A knowledge of any fact in language is a part of the 
knowledge of language. Sometimes an element may be referred differently in 
construction where the sense would be different, and we may not be able to know 
which sense the author intended. It would then be a defect in composition. 

10. Yesterday was a fine day. 11. In your whole behavior, be 
humble and obliging. 12. Virtue is the universal charm. 
13. "The noble master of the dome, still made his house the 
wandering stanger's home." 14. True politeness has its seat 
in the heart. ' 15. Peevishness and passion often produce most 
serious mischief. 16. Discontent often nourishes in the cot- 
tage and in the palace passions equally malignant. 17. A great 
portion of human evils is created by ourselves. 18. A passion 
for revenge has always been considered the mark of a little and 
mean mind. 19. The friendships of young persons are often 
founded on capricious likings. 20. Truth and candor possess a 
powerful charm. 21. Temper the vivacity of youth with a 
proper mixture of serious thought. 22. The spirit of true reli- 
gion is social, kind and cheerful. [Compound predicate.'] 
23. Piety and virtue are particularly graceful and becoming in 
youth. 24. Food, clothing and credit are the rewards of 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

industry. 25. She reads properly, writes very neatly, and 
composes accurately. 26. The laurels of the warrior are dyed 
in blood and bedewed with the tears of the widow and orphan. 

27. The gardens of the world produce only deciduous flowers. 

28. Perennial flowers must be sought in the delightful regions 
above these lower realms. 29. Eoses without thorns are the 
growth of Paradise alone. 31. The towering pride of Nebu- 
chadnezzar was suddenly brought low. 31. A herd of cattle 
peacefully grazing affords a pleasing sight. 32. On the grassy 
bank stood a tall waving ash sound to the very top. 33. By 
industry, economy and good luck, he soon acquired a fortune. 
34. The glory of Babylon has been prostrated. 35. He studied 
diligently and carefully. 36. My friend toils at his work very 
perseveringly. 37. We marched forward slowly. 38. You have 
come altogether too soon. [Altogether mod. too soon] 39. The 
car runs not quite fast enough. [Enough mod. fast, and quite 
mod. fast enough, and not mod. quite.] 40. The conscientious 
lad performed his task patiently, accurately and thoroughly. 
41. I had never seen any thing quite so beautiful before. 
[Beautiful mod. thing.'] 42. He is distinguished both as a 
teacher and as a scholar. [Cpcl. att. obj., cf. § 401, Exam. 43.] 
43. The farmer had raised sheep, oxen, and horses. 44. The 
teacher provided a present for the successsful competitor. 
45. An indulgent father will sometimes give too many grati- 
fications to his children. 46. Give me your hand. 

47. "Loose then from earth the grasp of fond desire, 

Weigh anchor and some happier clime explore." — Young. 

48. Cheerfulness keeps up a kind of day-light in the mind, and 
fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. [Cpd. Pred.] 

49. An honorable discharge was granted to him. 50. Did you 
return him his book? 51. "My son, be wise and make my 
heart glad." 32. "Correct thy son, and he shall give thee rest." 
53. They called Miles a carpenter. 54. They called Miles the 
carpenter into their employ. 55. Assyrian ruins having been 
explored, disclose many monuments of antiquity before unknown. 

INTERROGATION. 

414. Every grammatical form for asking a question either 
brings the first part of the verb before the subject, or employs 
an interrogative word as subject or modifier of the subject. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 

INTEEEOGATIYE WOEDS. 

415. Certain words besides verbs are used in the commence- 
ment of a proposition, to show that a question is intended. 
These are called interrogative words. They are either 
interrogative pronouns or interrogative adverbs. But two of the 
interrogative pronouns are also used as interrogative adjectives. 

416. The interrogative pronouns are only three, who, 
which, and what. 

They are declined as follows : 

Nom. Who, Nom. Which, Nom. What, 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Poss. 

Obj. Whom. Obj. Which. Obj. What. 

417. They are used in the same form in the singular and 
plural. Which and what are used both as subject and object, 
but have no possessive form. 

1. Who in each of its cases is always used as a pronoun 
and with reference to rational beings only. 

2. Which and ichat are used both as pronouns and as adjec- 
tives. 

3. Which, as an interrogative pronoun or adjective, refers 
to a distinction between two or more persons or things in the 
mind of the speaker, and supposed to be in the mind of the 
hearer ; as, Which of those men is your friend ? Which of 
the stories do you believe ? Which man was elected? Which 
bird has the sweetest song? 

4. What, as an interrogative pronoun, always refers to things 
not rational; thus, What pleases you? What troubles him? 

5. As interrogative adjectives, which or wJtat are applied to 
either persons or things ; thus, What man pleases you? Which 
man troubles you ? What thing pleases you ? Which thing 
troubles you? 

418. The interrogative adverbs are, how, why, ivhen, 
whence, and whither, also compounds of where ; as, wherefore, 
whereby, wherein, ivhereat, wherewith; and a few others that are 
now obsolete, or little used. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

419. Inquiries with interrogative adverbs are generally com- 
menced with the adverb, and a part of the verb also precedes 
the subject. They are made as follows: How does he work? 
Why has he come ? When did he arrive ? Whence have they 
come ? Whither shall we go ? Wherefore has he left the city? 



DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE QUESTIONS. 

420. An inquiry commencing with a verb inquires for the 
correctness or incorrectness of what the [same proposition would 
affirm, if the subject preceded the verb, and must be answered 
by yes or no. Hence, 

421. An inquiry commenced by a verb is called a definite 

question. 

Examples. — Has he learned his lesson ? Have the visitors 
arrived ? Had they forgotten something ? 

422. An inquiry commenced by an interrogative word 
inquires for that which the word denotes. If the word is a pro- 
noun or adjective, it inquires for that which the pronoun or 
adjective represents. If the interrogative word is an adverb, it 
inquires for the circumstance to which the adverb refers. An 
inquiry by an interrogative word cannot be answered by a defi- 
nite, yes or no,- but the answer must state the person, thing or 
circumstance inquired for; hence, 

423. An inquiry commenced by an interrogative word is 
called an indefinite question. 

Not that it is indefinite in a general sense, but that it does 
not confine the inquiry to the point, yes or no. 

424. Examples showing the use of interrog. words. — Who 
wrote that letter? Whose behavior offended you? Which is 
the best book? What caused his disappointment? Which 
man assisted the sick stranger? What animal has destroyed 
those sheep? When will the cars arrive? Whither did your 
brother go ? For what purpose did you come ? Whose house 
do you occupy? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 121 

425. In modern usage, inquiry made in the present and past 
tenses, pu. interr. is chiefly in the emphatic form ; as, Does he 
write? Did they depart? except with the verbs to be and to 
have, the first of which requires and the second usually employs 
the simple tenses ; as, Art thou prudent? Has he the book? 

But in old authors and in poetry, inquiry in the simple tenses 
of other verbs frequently occurs ; as, "Believest thou the 
prophets?"— Acts 26:27. "What fear we then?"— Milton. 
"Breathes there a man with soul so dead?" — Scott. 

426. An indirect question is one stated in substance, but not 
in the form of interrogation. Examples are the clauses in 
italics in the following sentences : 

He asked whether our goods had arrived. They inquired where 
we had tarried. The strangers knew not which road they should 
take. 

An indirect question is always a clause in a complex sen- 
tence, and should not be followed by a mark of interrogation 
like a question asked. 

The full illustration of indirect questions would be out of 
place here. 

Exercise XXXVI. 

427. Examples in Interrogation — Let the pupil distinguish between defi- 
nite and indefinite questions, tell which are indefinite, and carefully parse all 
interrogative words. 

1. Has he received his pension? 2. Who are the professors 
in that institution ? 3. Which is the book given to your brother ? 
4. Whose house took fire last night? 5. A trust in what sus- 
tained your father ? 6. Which book pleased the boy ? 7. An 
officer of what regiment had captured that guerrilla band? 8. 
What birds have constructed their nests in that old oak tree ? 

9. The conduct of which prisoner appeared the most attrocious? 

10. Has your sister visited you this week? 11. The summer 
birds have departed. 12. What agent did the merchant em- 
ploy? 13. Is algebra a difficult study? 14. Who visited you 
last evening? 15. The snow had fallen very deep on the high 
lands. 16. What people employ snow-shoes? 17. Where do 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the robins spend the winter? 18. How long will your uncle 
tarry in the city? 19. What is the distance to the city of St. 
Louis? 20. Who of your acquaintance is going thither soon? 
21. The stranger inquired where accomodations for the night 
might be found. 22. Whom did you see in the society meet- 
ing? 23. What interesting objects did you visit on your 
journey? 24. Where do your friends live? 25. On what 
account has the regiment been called together? 26. Whither 
are they going? 27. Some one asked whether there is a riot 
in the city. 28. How many feet of snow fell on the mountains 
in the winter? 29. Do you spend the vacation at home? 30. 
His horse stumbled and fell. 31. Tell me, where I can cross 
the river. 32. What! looked he frowningly? 33. Can you 
think me capable of so vile a deed ? 34. Should I not have 
devoted myself entirely to the service of my country? 35. Is 
not forgivensss honorable to any man? 36. Shall I know your 
answer? 37. Heard ye those loud contending waves? 38. Why 
stand we here idle ? 39. What do gentlemen wish ? 40. What 
would they have? 41. Shall we purchase peace at the price of 
chains and slavery? 42. Can America under such circumstan- 
ces betray herself? 43. Wherein did Chatham surpass Burke? 
44. "Why reason ye these things in your hearts?" 45. Will 
you tell me where the wood pigeons breed? 46. Do you know 
when the gentleman will return? 

THE INFINITIVE OF THE VEEB. 

428. The infinitive of the verb in its simplest form, is 
its root preceded by the word to, and used substantively ; i. e. 
after the manner of a noun. Compare §§72 and 73. 

Rem.— "The infinitive is not properly a mode of the verb; for since it does not 
assert action at all, it cannot be said to have any manner or mode of assertion."— 
S. S. Greene Gram. § 89-3. This statement of Mr. Greene is found also in substance 
in many other grammars, and is plainly correct. Hence this form is not properly 
called tlie "infinitive mode," but, retaining the established term infinitive, corres- 
ponding to a form of like name and similar use in other languages, it may be called 
the ivffn Hive of the verb. That is, a form of the verb used without limitation of num- 
ber or person. 

429. There are two infinitive forms in each Gen. Form 
of the verb, except the Emphatic. These are called the present 
and perfect infinitives. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 123 

430. In the Common General Form, the present infini- 
tive is the root of the verb with the word to before it. 

And the perfect infinitive is the perfect participle with the 
auxiliary have before it preceded by to. 

Examples. — To turn, to have turned ; to take, to have taken ; 
to be, to have been. See Table of Conjugations at its close. 

§ 284. 

431. The infinitives of the Progressive and Passive 

Forms are made by annexing the present or perfect participle 
to the infinitive forms of the verb to be. This is in perfect anal- 
ogy with all other parts of these Gen. Forms, making in the 
Progressive Form, to be turning, to have been turning; and in the 
Passive Form, to be turned, to have been turned. 

432. The particle to, as here used, in the present state of 
our language, is simply a prepositive, characterizing the infini- 
tive. It is not now a preposition, as some have termed it, 
whatever may have been its origin. These infinitives are all 
properly regarded as inseparable phrases, under certain circum- 
stances they are used without the prepositive to. Compare § 45]. 

433. Import. — The infinitive expresses, in an abstract man- 
ner, the action or state which the finite verb declares. 

It closely resembles in its signification, and much in its higher 
construction an abstract noun. It makes no declaration, and 
is not limited in number or person by any subject. A promi- 
nent difference between an infinitive and an abstract noun is, 
that the infinitive admits adverbial modifiers, and also objective 
modifiers to the extent that the verb from which it is derived 
admits them. But a noun admits neither. 

434. The present infinitive represents the action or state as 
existing, either generally, or at some implied time ; and the 
perfect infinitive represents the action or state as completed at 
some implied time. 

435. Let the pupil give the infinitives of the following verbs in the different 
Gen. Forms, observing however that intransitive verbs have commonly no Passive 
Form, and the Emphatic Form has no infinitive. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Move, promote, retard, return, forgive, depart, arise, turn, 
write, worship, credit, put, control, speak, tell, think. 

CLASSIFIED EXERCISES WITH INFINITIVES. 

436. The following classified sentences are given for both illustration and 
exercise. Let the learner describe all the infinitives, and tell from what verb 
formed, and for what element used. 

437. I. The infinitive as subject of a finite verb, 

Exercise XXXVII. 

1. To learn is a duty. 2. To have succeeded in an under- 
taking cheers the heart. 3. To have retreated was impossible. 
4. To be despised is a consequence of mean behavior. 5. To 
consider the consequences of our actions is a plain duty. 6. To 
be pondering continually over our misfortunes is not wise. 
7. Not to be deceived sometimes is unlikely. 8. To be 
employed industriously is honorable in all men. 9. To have 
been alarmed in time of danger is no disgrace. 10. To be 
learning always something new is desirable. 11. To have 
been always lagging behind the class is a shame. 

Exercise in Construction. 

438. Construct twelve sentences with an infinitive as subject; two with a 
pres. inf. and two with a perf . inf., in each of the three Gen. Forms which admit 
infinitives. 

439. II. The infinitive used with the copula, in the 

manner of a noun to make a second class predicate. 

Exercise XXXVIII. 

1. His employment is to study. 2. His privilege was to 
attend the High School. 3. Was not his delight to play with 
his rabbits? 4. To sin is to suffer. 5. Will not to defer the 
matter be to give it up entirely? 6. A happy remembrance is 
to have promoted my mother's comfort in her last sickness. 
7. Will not his duty be, in such circumstances, to be improving 
his time very carefully? 8. His misfortune was to have been 
laboring for an unfaithful man. 9. My good fortune has been 
to have been employed by an honest man. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 125 

Rem. 1.— The infinitive following the copula often implies purpose, necessity or 
certainty regarding a future event, when the relation of pred. and subj. is such as 
to make that idea appropriate; as seen in the following sentences. 

10. I am to go into the country to-day. 11. His stock of 
goods is to be sold at cost. 12. Their decision is to be deplored. 
13. We are to make the attempt at all hazards. 14. The 
man was to depart yesterday. 15. That disagreeable job will 
be to be completed soon. 16. A passage through the ice is to 
be found. 17. The work was to have been commenced before 
this time. 

Rem. 2. The preposition about is frequently used before the infinitive to indicate 
an action or event soon to take place; as, I am about to go to the city. The inf. is 
the obj. of the prep, and the prepl. phrase forms with the copula a 2d class predi- 
cate, cf. §§ 404 and 477. 

18. Mr. Smith is about to sell his house. 19. Major Brown is 
about to start for New York in the morning. 20. 'The army 
will be about to break up its encampment, by the time of your 
arrival. 

Exercise in Construction. 

440. Construct twelve sentences in which an inf. with the cop. forms a 2d 
class predicate, forming two sentences with each of the six forms of the inf. 

441. III. The infinitive as the direct object of a 
verb. 

It will be seen that the inf. may have its own obj. at the same time. 

Exercise XXXIX. 

1. The child loves to play. 2. William wishes to write a 
letter. 3. The prisoner will try to escape. 4. Did I forget to 
mention that fact? 5. John hopes to succeed well in his 
undertaking. 6. Had that man expected to overcome his 
rivals? 7. The idlers sought to enter the gate secretly and 
without permission. 8. The farmer's son began to plow early 
in the morning. 9. Seek to secure virtue's reward. 10. That 
irritable man, after many sad experiences, learned to restrain 
his passions promptly. 11. "John expected to have finished 
his task before this time." — Mulligan, p. 210. 12. "He intended 
to have called on you before his departure." — Do. 13. He has 
been waiting to obtain a treatise on the deposition of dew. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. 1.— When an infinitive is the direct object of the verb to have it expresses 
an obligation or necessity which the subject of the verb is obliged to meet; as in 
tne next examples. 

14. I have to go in an hour. 15. I had to do an errand for 
mother at the store before school. 16. I shall have to pay the 
expenses of my brother's sickness in his misfortune. 17. My 
creditors will have to bear with my delay for a time, in my 
obligations to them. 

Rem. 2.— The idea of action or state expressed by the infinitive is often so ab- 
stract as not to refer to any particular person or thing as the subject of that action 
or state; as, To steal is to commit a crime. 

Rem. 3.— But in other cases, though there is no assertion made about any sub- 
ject by the infinitive, there is a subject fairly implied to which the action or state 
is understood to belong; and this is called the subject of the infinitive. When the 
infinitive is the direct object of another verb, the subject of the infinitive is the 
same as that of the verb of which it is the object; as, Mary wishes to return. Here 
the action expressed by the inf. to return is, understood to belong to Mary as much 
as that declared by wishes. And in this, Fanny will continue to stay, the state 
expressed by to stay is understood to belong to Fanny as much as that declared by 
will continue. 

Rem. 4.— So uniformly are such cases thus understood, that, if we wish the 
action or state expressed by the infinitive to be understood of some other subject, 
we insert a noun or pronoun before it to express that other subject; thus, We wisJi. 
you to stay, which is very different from We wish to stay. In the last case to stay 
and wish have the same subject, we. In the other case, you is the subject of to 
stay, as it manifestly expresses the one who is to stay, and we is tbe subject of 
wish. 

Rem. 5.— When thus used the infinitive is an attributive object, for it expresses 
the result (in this case, the desired result) of the import of the finite verb upon the 
direct object, you. [cf. Def. of Att. Obj. § 397.] 

Examples of this nature will be found under the next division. 

Rem. 6— Here seems to be the proper place to state that the infinitive with its 
own subject before it, sometimes forms a substantive phrase, which becomes the 
subject of a finite verb. It is then preceded by the word, for; as, For a boy to lie is 
base. Boy to He is properly a 2d class subject, since it is a simple element made by 
a separable phrase of which one part does not modify another. The word, for, in 
this connection partakes more of the nature of a conjunction than of any thing 
else. It serves to connect the subject of the infinitive with the infinitive. 

Several examples of this kind follow. 

18. For you to deceive is criminal. 19. For a man to betray 
his country is to act most basely. 20. For a dog to bark is 
not unusual. 21. For a reputable man to have managed thus 
deceitfully was a surprise to all. 22. For any person to dis- 
believe that testimony would be impossible. 

Exercise in Construction. 

442. Construct ten sentences with an infinitive as direct object, giving vari- 
ous forms of the infinitive. 

Construct also two sentences with the infinitive and its subject as subject of a 
finite verb. See Rem. 6, last section. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127 

443. IV. The infinitive as an attributive object. 

See definition of Attr. obj. § 397 and cf. Rem. 3-5 under § 441, 

Exercise XL. 

1. The guard ordered him to retire. 

Rem. 1.- Here to retire is an attribute of him, because it expresses the action to be 
performed by the one that him represents. It is the object of ordered, because it is 
to be the result of the action expressed in ordered. Hence it answers to the defini- 
tion of the attributive object after the active voice. 

Rem. 2.— In the next example it answers to the definition of attributive object 
after the passive voice, for that which was the direct object has become the sub- 
ject, of which to retire expresses the attribute as before, and is at the same time 
the result of the import of the verb. 

2. He was ordered by the guard to retire. 3. The man seems 
to prosper. 

Rem. 3- Here to prosper is the result of seems, i. e. in the mind of the speaker; 
and is at the same time the attribute of man, and thus an attributive obj. after an 
intrans. verb. 

4. They obliged the boy to return to the house. 5. He was 
obliged to return. 6. The people suppose the stranger to have 
left town. 7. He is supposed by the people to have left town. 
8. I directed the goods to be purchased. 9. Tell James to 
bring his books. 

Rem. 4.— Incases of this kind, some w T ould regard to bring as the direct object 
of the finite verb, and James the indirect object. Such a view could not, perhaps, 
be deemed erroneous. But it is better to regard James as direct object, and to 
bring as the attributive. It expresses more exactly the relation of ideas. If we 
change the expression to the passive form, the direct object should become the 
subject, and it is better to say, James was told to bring his books, than to say, To 
bring-his books was told to James. 

10. Your plants appear to grow rapidly. 11. They invited 
him to take part in their deliberations. 12. This man was 
thought to have been wronged on that occasion. 13. I heard 
him repeat whole pages of poetry. 14. He seems to think the 
rule inapplicable in this case. 

Rem. 5.— The attributive object after seem, hear, see, feel, and similar verbs, does 
not express an event as actually resulting through what the verb imports, but as 
coming to the knowledge or conception of the speaker through that means. In 
some cases of this nature, as after the verb to see; viz: "I saw him take the money, '* 
it might bethought better to regard the inf. and its subj. i. e. him take, as unitedly 
forming one second class element, direct object of saw. But when we change the 
expression into the passive form, we say, "He was seen to take the money, "and 
separate the inf. and its subj. in amanner precisely analagous to the plainest cases 
of direct and attributive object. And this seems to prove that these should be 
classed with such cases. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

15. Those piers appear to stand upon a firm foundation. 16. 
We were bidden to rest. 17. That object was plainly seen to 
move. 18. The presiding officer entreated the people to dis- 
perse. 19. Have you asked your father to send you to college ? 
20. Boys expect to become men at some time. 

Rem. 6.— Men is here the attr. obj. after to become, and expresses the attribute 
of boys, which is the subj of to become, as truly as of expect. 

Exercise in Construction. 

444. Construct sixteen sentences with an infinitive as attributive object. In 
eight make an attr. obj. after the active voice. In six make an attr. obj. after the 
passive voice. And in two make an attr. obj. after an intransitive verb. 

i 445. V. The infinitive as an adjective element 
modifying a noun. 



Exercise XLI. 

1. An opportunity to study should be carefully improved. 2. 
My son has a strong desire to learn. 3. The men had not 
courage to enter the cave. 4. We had a great curiosity to see 
the battlefield. 5. The patrons may have shown an undue pro- 
pensity to find fault. 6. He has a heart to pity and a hand to 
help. 7. A wish to excel does not always secure its object. 8. 
This hour is the time to rise. 9. The sick man has a strong 
hope to recover. 10. A wish to stay delayed his preparations 
to go. 11. A desire to see his face once more, induced us to 
attempt the journey. 

Exercise in Construction. 

446. Construct ten sentences with an infinitive as an adjective element. 

447. VI. The infinitive used as an adverbial ele- 
ment of cause. 

Exercise XLII. 

1. Of final cause or purpose, i. e. the motive inducing action. It may be known 
by its answering to the question, In order for what? 

1. I came to see you. 2. They have come to remain. 3. 
Most persons read to learn. 4. Some persons read simply to 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 129 

amuse themselves. 5. Some men live to eat. 6. Better men 
eat to live. 7. They stoop to conquer. 

8. "The passions oft to hear her shell, 

Thronged around her magic cell." — Collins. 

9. Multitudes are said to have come to see the show of wild 
animals. 

\To have come, attr. obj. after are said; to se$ final cause after to have come.l 

10. Did they invite him to enjoy his company, or simply to 
show him attention? 11. Schools are established to educate 
the rising generation. 12. Aspiring youth seek to be educated. 

Rem.— The preposition for was formerly used before the infinitive of purpose. 
It occurs in various passages in the Bible. 

13. "What went ye out for to see ?" 14. "God hath made of one 
blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth. " 

2. Of efficient or impelling cause. That which constrains to a state of mind or 
conduct. 

15. I grieve to hear of your sad misfortune. 16. I mourn to 
have heard of your loss of your father. 17. My friends rejoiced 
greatly to see me after so long an absence. 18. The father was 
distressed to learn of his son's criminality. 19. We were all 
delighted to know of the success of Dr. Livingstone's explora- 
tions in Central Africa. 20. We should have been more delighted 
to have learned of his safe return, and of the publication of his 
journals under his own supervision. 

Exercise in Construction. 

448. Construct six sentences with an infinitive expressing a final cause, and 
four in which it expresses an efficient cause. 

449. VII. The infinitive used as an adverbial ele- 
ment to modify an adjective. It shows in what respect 
the signification of the adjective is intended to apply. 



Exercise XLIII. 

1. We were anxious to return at night. 2. I am very glad 
to see you. 3. He is too proud to beg. 4. The family are de- 
sirous to embark for Europe. 5. The health of the mother is 

—9 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

not sufficient to allow them to sail in the next steamer. 6. He 
was willing to wound and ready to strike. 7. Was not that 
lesson easy to learn? 8. His task had been too difficult to be 
performed. 9. The magnificence of that mountain scenery was 
wonderful to behold. 10. The violent and desperate conflict of 
the contending armies was terrible to be seen. 11. I am sorry 
to hear of your failure to get employment. 12. Are not the 
gorges in the Yellowstone mountains terrific to gaze into? 13. 
The strength of Constantinopolitan porters is almost too great 
to believe. 

Exercise in Construction. 

450. Construct ten sentences in which an infinitive shall be an adverbial 
element modifying an adjective. 

VIII. The Infinitive without the Particle, To. 

451. The verbs, behold, bid, feel, hear, let, make, and see, in 

the active voice, admit the infinitive after them, as attributive 

object, without the prepositive, to. 

Exam. — He beheld his comrade fall. The teacher bid him 
perform, his task. We feel the boat move. I heard him recite. 
I shall not let the delinquent go. The engine makes the cars 
move. You saw the young birds open their mouths and receive 
their food. 

1. Dare, (to venture) and need, sometimes admit the infini- 
tive as direct object in like manner ; as, "Moses trembled and 
durst not behold." — Acts 7:32. ''They need not depart." — Mat. 
14:16. 

2. We find a very common expression with the verb, let, in 
the imperative mode, and thou or ye understood as its subject, 
having a direct object, followed by an infinitive without to, as 
attributive object; as, Let me recite, Let them study. 

Exercise XLIV. 

452. Infinitives without To. 

1. I have heard him tell that story before, [cf. § 443, Eem. 
5.] 2. The officers will make him understand his duty. 3. I 
feel his pulse beat. 4. They let their negroes go free, [go 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 

attributive object after let, and free after go.~\ 5. I saw a nock 
of wild geese fly over our heads. 6. ''Dare any of you go to 
law before the unjust?" — 1 Cor. 6:1. 7. Let him consider the 
consequences of his course. 8. We need not allow him that 
perquisite, [allow inf. di. obj. of need, perquisite, direct, him 
indirect of allow.'] 9. Let the class in grammar be prepared to 
recite at ten o'clock, [be prepared pas. inf. attr. obj. after let; 
to recite inf. of purpose after the other inf.] 10. I felt that 
trouble press upon me with great violence. We heard them 
shriek for help. 

Exercise in Construction. 

453. Construct ten sentences with verbs followed by the infinitive without 
the prepositive to, using each of the verbs, behold, bid, feel, hear, let, make and see, 
at least once. 

NOUNS DENOTING WEIGHT, MEASURE, VALUE, 
DURATION OF TIME, AND EXTENT OF SPACE. 

454. A noun is often used simply as an adverbial element,. 
to denote iveight, measure, value, duration of time, or extent of 
space ; as, That large book weighs five pounds. The pole is ten 
feet long. That horse is worth a hundred and fifty dollars. 
He staid in Eome five months. The soldiers marched twenty 
miles in one day. 

Rem.— Hundred and fifty numeral adj. modifying dollars; dollars a noun used 
as adverbial element mod. the adj. worth. The article a in cases of this kind is to 
be considered as mod. the whole phrase hundred and fifty dollars, as one thing.— 
Twenty num. adj. mod. miles, and miles a noun used as adverbial element of dis- 
tance or extent of space, mod. marched. All elements of this description are to be 
similarly explained. 

LIKE, NIGH, AND NEAR, HOW MODIFIED. 

455. The words like, nigh, and near, whether used as ad- 
jectives or adverbs, may be modified by an adverbial element 
made of a prepositional phrase; as, "The vineyard is near to 
my house." "The Lord is nigh to all that call on him." "Who 
is a strong Lord like unto thee?" But frequently the preposition 
is omitted, and the noun or pronoun itself constitutes the 
adverbial element ; as, The vineyard is near my house? Who 
is a strong Lord like thee? "His salvation is nigh them that 
fear Him." 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hence the principle : 

456. A noun or pronoun after like, nigh, or near, often 
constitutes an adverbial element of itself denoting that to which 
the likeness or nearness has respect. 

Rem. 1. — It has been customary to consider the noun or pronoun, in such cases, 
the object of a preposition understood, if it was not expressed. But then it is an 
adverbial element of the same nature as without the preposition, only changed in 
form, from first to second class. 

Rem. 2.— Some have thought necessary to consider this element an indirect 
object. But the proper indirect object is an object after a verb, denoting some per- 
cipient being that participates in the advantage or disadvantage of what the verb 
imports. 

Rem. 3. When like, nigh, or near is followed by a noun or pronoun without a 
preposition in such forms as above, it partakes of the nature of a preposition, 
itself, and may be so termed. See Webster's Dictionary, Edition 1880, under the 
word near. 

Rem. 4. A pronoun used as adverbial element after like or near must be in the 
objective case. 

ADJECTIVE PKONOUNS. 

457. An Adjective Pronoun is a definitive adjective 
used to represent a noun. 

This name is properly given to a definitive adjective, when 
without the article the before it, it is used to represent a noun ; 
as, This is my book, that is your book. 

The words, this, that, these, those, each, either, neither, all, any, 
both, one, none, other, another, such, some, are often so used. 

A noun may be understood after the adjective, but it really 
represents the noun and adjective both. The words one and 
other have their plural and possessive forms like nouns ; ones, 
others, one's other's. 

2. Descriptive adjectives preceded by the, are often used for 
nouns in the plural; thus, "Wilt thou also destroy the righteous 
with the ivickedV 

And some definitive adjectives represent nouns in this manner 
that could not otherwise ; thus, "It shall not be as the former or 
as the latter.'' "The last shall be first, and the first, last. But 
all so used are better explained as adjectives used for nouns, 
than by extending to them the term pronoun. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133 

458. The following examples illustrate the use of adjective 
pronouns. 

Let the pupil parse them. 

1. This is my book. 2. That is thy slate. 3. These are 
soldiers', caps. 4. Those are boys' shoes. 5. Either may have 
the book. 6. Neither can have the toys. 7. Each is a good 
boy. 8. All think the same thing. 9. None deny the state- 
ment. 10. Any may try the experiment. 11. One does not 
know the right road in the darkness. 12. "Another shall call 
himself by the name of Jacob." 13. Such might be expected 
to err. 14. Some are in great haste. 15. "Both shall fall into 
the ditch." 16. The mother takes care of the little ones. 19. 
The others take care of themselves. 18. One's benefit often 
lies in others' power. 

KECIPEOCAL PEONOUNS. 

459. The language furnishes two reciprocal pronouns, 

each composed of two definitive adjectives, as follows : each- 
other, one-another. Though not usually written with a hyphen, 
they seem well entitled to be so written. In use they closely 
resemble the Greek pronoun, alldlous. 

460. Each of these couplets should be considered and 
parsed as one word, and termed a "reciprocal pronoun; as in 
the following sentences : 

They slandered each other. They quarreled with one another. 

461. These reciprocal pronouns are always the object of a 
verb or preposition, and represent two or more individuals as 
receiving each severally an act performed by each severally. 

MINE, THINE, HEES, OUES, YOUES, THEIES. 

462. These possessive forms of the personal pronoun are 
employed in modern usage, only when the noun they modify is 
understood. And they resemble the adjective pronouns in this, 
that they represent both the noun which they modify and the 
modifier. Thus, in the sentences, This book is mine, That hat 
is yours ; mine represents my book, and yours represents your 
hat. And so in the following, mine and yours represent my bird 
and your bird. Here are two pet birds, yours is the oriole, 
mine is the canary. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

463. A possessive form thus used may be explained, as 
modifying a noun understood, or better as a pronoun repre- 
senting both the noun understood and its possessive modifier. 
It may thus be the subject of a proposition, or form a predicate 
with the copula ; as in the examples given. 

464. The possessive form, his, is also used in the same 
manner, as well as to modify a noun expressed; as, These 
horses are his. My horses are bay, Iris are dark brown. 

465. These forms are also used as the object of a verb or 
preposition ; as in the following examples : "I seek not yours." — 
2 Cor. 12:14. "A friend of mine in his journey has come to 
me." Of mine= of my friends, i. e. of the number of my 
friends. 

Obs.— In deseribing sentences, the pronouns mine, thine, etc., may be termed 
subject or object as the case may be; but the pupil should be able to tell that they 
become so by representing both the noun and the possessive pronoun. 



Exercise XLV. 

466. Examples for practice under the five preceding topics with other sen- 
tences interspersed. 

1. The American half-dollar by statute of 1853 weighed 192 
grains. 2. The gold eagle weighed 258 grains. 3. Steam cars 
often run thirty miles in an hour. 4. How many miles will a 
good horse travel in a day? 5. "None other can show it before 
the king." — Dan. 2:11. 6. A comma is used to mark the 
smallest division of a sentence and the shortest pause. 7. My 
kind uncle gave us an English robin, a pet lamb, and a gray 
pony. 8. "The queen is valued thirty thousand strong."— 
Shale. 9. Here are nice apples, pears, and grapes. 10. Which 
will you have? 11. I will take either. 12. That bad boy shall 
have neither. 13. That is your country, this is mine, a land of 
liberty. 14. The gardener on Jackson street has some fine 
red-cheek peaches on his trees. Those are . very delicious. 
15. We have such also here in our garden 16. Will 
you give me some? 17. Yes, surely. I am keeping 
these on purpose for my special friends, like yourself. 18. 
None are too old to learn. 19. One cannot be convinced 
concerning that matter by his word. 20. Can any believe 
such wonderful stories without more proof? 21. Are those 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 135 

in the pasture your horses? 22. That is the thing de- 
sired. 23. "Surely such are the dwellings of the wicked." 
24. "Not thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor revelers, nor 
extortioners, shall inherit the kingdom of God." 25. "And 
such were some of you ; but ye are washed, but ye are sanc- 
tified, but ye are justified in the name of the Lord Jesus, and 
by the Spirit of our God."— 1 Cor. 6:10, 11. 26. "I have 
commanded my sanctified ones ; I have called my mighty ones." 
27. Please, dear brother, may 1 take your knife ? 28. Let each 
befriend another in his need. 29. Eobert was ten years old, 
and had been at school five years steadily. 30. His mother, a 
widow, now wished him to give up school and help her. 3 1 . This 
grieved him very much. 32. Can I not get something to do, 
after school, to help my mother? 33. This is my very great 
desire. 34. Farmer Bennet is a good man. 35. I will go and 
tell him all about my troubles. 36. Perhaps, he will help me. 
37. Evil habits generally become stronger and stronger by 
indulgence. 38. The two friends love each other dearly. 
39. The soldiers in the line being crowded together, embar- 
rassed one another in the encounter. 



Exercise in Construction. 

467. Construct three sentences in accordance with each of the five pre 
ceding topics: §§ 454, 456, 457, 459, 462. 



UNION OF PARTICIPLE AND NOUN FOR ADVERBIAL 

ELEMENT. 

488. The union of a participle and noun or pro- 
noun often forms an adverbial element of cause, time, or 
general circumstance, modifying a verb. 

Examples. — The enemy advancing, the van guard retreated. 
The hour having arrived, the assembly adjourned. Caesar, Gaul 
being left, returned to Rome. They refusing to comply, I with- 
drew. 

469. The noun and participle, thus used, have no other 
grammatical connection with the sentence than to make 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

unitedly one adverbial modification. But they may have their 
own modifiers ; as, to comply, in the last example, is the direct 
object of the participle refusing. 

470. If a pronoun is used with the participle it must be in 
the nominative case; as, He having given his testimony, no 
more doubt remained in the case. 

And it has been common to speak of the noun as nominative 
case absolute in this relation. But what advantage can arise 
from applying the term case to a noun thus used, does not 
appear. It can never have other than its usual form. 

471. This mode of using a participle and noun corresponds 
to the "ablative absolute" in Latin, a usage very common in 
that language. 

472. A noun and adjective are sometimes used in this 
manner, a participle of the copula being understood ; as, You 
present, he would not state the facts. = You being present, he 
would not state the facts. 

473. But the noun and participle are the usual combination 
thus used. And as these are represented by the abbreviations, 
n. and p., to shorten speech, this element, in any of its forms, 
may be called the np. (en-pe) element. 

474. En-pe element — how explained in describing sentences. 
On meeting this element in describing sentences, parse the 
noun and participle with their modifiers, tell what element they 
unitedly constitute, to what class of adverbial elements it be- 
longs, and what it modifies. 

Exercise XL VI. 

475. Sentences containing the adverbial element of participle and noun, 
called the np element, are here mingled with others, which the pupil is to distin- 
guish. 

1. The horse stumbling, the rider was precipitated to the 
earth. 2. The sun having set, we were obliged to encamp. 3. 
The ashes have lost their heat. 4. He left home, the clock 
striking nine. 5. The clock striking ten, he entered the city. 
6. Where are your slate and pencil? 7. Wednesday or Thurs- 
day was the appointed day. 8. The wild geese flying north- 
ward, we anticipate warm weather. 9. The kings being 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 137 

banished at Kome, consuls were created. 10. Tarquin reigning, 
Pythagoras came to Italy. 11. Hunger inciting, the wolf seeks 
the fold. 12. Are your father and mother well? 13. The harvest 
being gathered, the boys enjoyed a holiday. 11. To desert a 
friend, or to divulge his secrets, is mean. 15. All things else 
being lost, virtue yet sustained herself. 16. His name being 
called, he answered promptly. 17. His father and mother 
having died, the lad wandered from home in sorrow and want. 
18. We saw the moon rising. 19. You may consider nothing 
truly excellent, virtue excepted. 20. The Gauls, the matter 
being known, abandoned the siege. 21. The soldier being 
wounded was carried to the hospital. 22. Being thus wounded 
he cannot return to his regiment. 23. The cavalry being sent 
forward, Caesar followed with his forces. 24. The fear of pun- 
ishment being taken away, what anxiety would disturb the 
wicked? 25. Daylight dawning, he left his position to search 
for the lost path. 26, Aeneas, Troy being taken by the Greeks, 
came into Italy. 27. The bee stinging the boy soon set itself 
free. 28. We found the fort deserted, the garrison having been 
frightened away. 29. His intention was to learn the art of 
engineering. 30. "The surface of the Dead Sea is 1316 feet 
below the level * of the Mediterranean." — Neiv Englander. 31. 
The surfaces of two lakes in Thibet are 15,000 feet above the 
level of the sea. — same. 32. "Soon peace shall come with all 
her smiling train." 33. The tree being cut down, the hunters 
found a large amount of honey, 34. "The Tarim river in 
Eastern Turkestan is 1500 miles long, and at its mouth 1280 feet 
above the sea." — N. Englander. 35. Their means of support 
having been consumed by grasshoppers, the family were obliged 
to leave the country. 

Exercise in Construction. 

47(?. Construct ten sentences in the use of the np element. 

SECOND CLASS PKEDICATES. 

477. Every verb, except the verb to be, includes an attribute 
in its signification, and is called an attributive verb. 

* For explanation of this and next predicate, see § 478. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The expression, men walk, is equivalent to men are walking; men 
write, to men are writing. The attribute of walking is included 
in the verb ivalk; and the attribute of writing in the verb write. 
And so of every verb, except the verb to be, and that includes 
the attribute of existence, when we say, God is, or, There is a 
God, and the verb, to be, is then an attributive verb. That the 
verb, to be, generally requires another word to express the attri- 
bute, is explained in § 185 sq., and that for this reason it is 
called the copula. 

Out of this distinction of verbs arises the distinction of first 
and second class predicates. Every attributive verb, with what- 
ever auxiliaries enter into its composition in each case, makes 
a simple first class predicate. 

477«. Any word or united expression not a proposition,* 
that can be taken together as a single element, and joined by the 
copula to a subject, may form a second class predicate. 

It is desirable that these forms be well understood, both for 
their own importance and as a ground for other illustrations. 
For second class predicates formed by the copula and noun or 
adjective, see § 185; for those formed with the infinitive, see 
§ 439, and compare § 404. 

478. A prepositional phrase is very often connected by the 
copula to a subject forming a second class predicate; as, "A 
man is in the street." "The house is on fire." Here is in 
street, or is on fire, is the simple unmodified predicate. The 
prepositional phrase bears the same relation to the proposition 
that an adjective thus situated would. The same meaning may 
sometimes be expressed by a predicate adjective, that is ex- 
pressed by a predicate prepositional phrase. E.g. The boy' is 
feeble. ^=\The boy is in a feeble state. The family will be sad. 
= The family will be in sadness. 

2. The possessive form is sometimes used with the copula to 
make a second class predicate ; as, "Wisdom and might are 
his." This book is Henry's. 

♦Note.— When a proposition is used with the copula to make the base of a predi- 
cate, it may be termed a Third Class predicate, cf. § 584,2. 

t Two short parallel lines are often used in Latin and Greek grammars to denote 
equality of signification between words and phrases. There seems no good reason 
why we should not employ this convenient mark in English grammar. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 139 

479. An adverb may sometimes be taken to constitute the 
attribute of a second class predicate ; as, The man has been 
here.= The man has been present. The game was yonder.— The 
game was distant. The labor will be in vain.= The labor will 
be useless. 

Rem.— In vain is an inseparable adverbial phrase. 

480. There have been six elements now explained that can 
form with the copula a second class predicate, viz : the noun, 
the adjective, the infinitive, the prepositional phrase, the ]jossessive 
form, and the adverb. One, remaining to be considered, is the 
gerund. 

Exercise XL VII. 

481. Parse and analyze as heretofore, noticing particularly the varieties of 
second class predicates. 

1. The horses were Arabian breed. 2. The light was very 
brilliant. 3. Paul was at Eome. 4. The fire is out. 5. Are 
your parents at home ? 6. Henry is in school. 7. Frank and 
George are on the farm. 8. Where are you? 9. "The great 
historian, the essayist, is no more." 10. The enemy was com- 
pletely in my power. 11. Mary, your lilies are in bloom. 12. 
Wisdom and truth, the offspring of the sky, are immortal. 
13. Calm was the day, and the sun, delightful. 14. The bright- 
est intellects are sometimes without virtue or honor. 15. A 
good parent's greatest joy is to see his children wise and virtu- 
ous. 16. A life of pleasure and dissipation is an enemy to 
health, fortune, and character. 17. No age or condition is 
exempt from trouble. 18. Are we here without permission? 
19. Charles was a man of knowledge, learning, politeness, and 
religion. 20. Many persons are in ignorance of true happiness. 
21. Our friends are in raptures over their new purchase. 

Exercise in Construction. 

482. Construct eighteen sentences, three in each variety of second class 
predicates named in § 480. 

IDIOMATIC USE OF IT, THERE, ETC. 

483. We have in our language a peculiar manner of em- 
ploying the pronoun it, for the subject of. a proposition, when 
the real subject which the it represents is not yet expressed. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The pronoun it is the subject in form, while the logical sub- 
ject, or that about which the declaration is really made, is 
introduced after the verb. 

484. This mode of expression is often employed when the 
real subject is an infinitive; as. "It is not honorable to cheat." 
"It is desirable to be esteemed." Here the pronoun, it, is in 
form the subject, and the infinitive, which is the real subject 
logically, stands as an adjective element in apposition with the 
pronoun, to show what it represents. 

485. This form is still oftener used in complex sentences 
when the real subject is a proposition. [See § 584, 4.] 

486. We have also a mode of using the pronoun, it, to refer 
in an indefinite manner to something in mind about which we 
wish to make an assertion or inquiry ; as, It was a wonder. 
Who was it ? 

And we use this neuter pronoun thus with reference to a sub- 
ject of any person, number, or gender. We say : It is I. It 
ivas he. Was it not your sister? It is the boys. It teas the 
soldiers. 

Rem.— Such expressions do not conform to the rules of grammar, but prevail in 
the language as reputable usage, and hence are termed idiomatic phrases. 

487. And in the forms of expression, It rains, It snows, the 
pronoun has no other significance than to enable us to express 
with these verbs the fact that rain or snow is falling. 

488. We often introduce a proposition with the word, there, 
so as to throw the subject even in an assertion after the verb, 
as follows : "There is a man in the street." "There are squir- 
rels in the forest." Here evidently man and squirrels are the 
subjects ; and is in street, and are in forest, are the simple second 
class predicates. 

Rem.— That the verb in such expressions is in the indicative mode is manifest 
from the fact, that the same meaning is naturally expressed with the subject pre- 
ceding the verb; as, A man is in the street. Squirrels are in the forest. 

• 489. This mode of speech is common when the verb, to be, 
forms by itself a simple predicate, without combining with any 
other word. It is then not a copula, but an attributive verb. 
Thus used, it declares the attribute of existence; as, "There is 
a world." "There is a Creator." "He is." — Heb. 11 :6. "There 
are seven kings." — Kev. 17:10. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 141 

490. This manner of introducing a proposition with the 
word, there, is frequent to declare the existence of persons or 
things, about which we wish to make a declaration in a subor- 
dinate proposition ; as, There are men who think, so and so. 
"There are metals which are very precious." 

491. The word, there, is called an adverb in such usage, 
but the only modification which it makes is, to change the order 
of elements in the proposition. 

492. Questions are made in this mode of expression by 
bringing the adverb, there., with the subject after the verb ; as, 
"Is there corn in the field?" "Is there a snake in the grass?" 

2. And in forming a question in the idiomatic use of it, we 
have only need to place this pronoun after the verb; thus. "Is 
it honorable to cheat?" "Is it not desirable to be esteemed?" 

493. There is another idiom of somewhat frequent occur- 
rence that may be noticed here. When we say, They laughed 
at the boy, laughed is considered an intransitive verb, and at the 
boy an indirect object. 

But the proposition is changed into the passive form as if we 
considered laughed at, a compound verb made transitive by the 
addition of the preposition at. And we say, The boy was laughed 
at by them. So also-sent for, and many like phrases are treated 
as compound verbs. Active, The laborer sent for his wages. 
Passive, His wages were sent for by the laborer. 

Sometimes a noun the direct object of the verb in the active 
voice and a preposition following it, are together taken with 
the verb, to make the passive form. E.g. Active, The citizens 
took little notice of the strangers. Passive, The strangers were 
taken little notice of, by the citizens. Active, We all lost sight 
of the vessel at twilight. Passive, At twilight the vessel ivas 
lost sight of, by us all. 

Exercise XL VIII. 

494. Idiomatic It, There, etc. 

1. There will be an eclipse in May. 2. "There is a rapture 
on the lonely shore." 3. It is not too late. [It refers to the 
time of day or night.] 4. It is foolish to lay out money in pur- 
chase of repentance. 5. It was a bright morning soft and 



142 - ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

balmy. 6. "There was one clear sliming star appearing before 
the rest, near the church spire, above the graves." 7. I want 
more money to buy books. 8. "There arose, about this time, 
from the lower ranks of the people, a man named Cromwell, of 
incredible depth of understanding, strict integrity, and unwaver- 
ing resolution. " 9. "There is one God, and there is none 
other." — Mark 12:32. 10. To protect persons and property is 
the duty of government. 11. It is necessary to improve our 
time in study, during youth. 12. "There is frequently a worm 
at the root of our most nourishing condition. " 13. It is the 
ambition of all to improve their circumstances. 14. To traduce 
some, to ingratiate ourselves with others, marks a base and 
despicable mind. 15. It was the men's, women's, and children's 
lot, to suffer great calamities. 16. There can have been no 
water to be had in that place. 17. It is a hazardous under- 
taking to attempt to cross the Atlantic in a balloon. 18. It is 
an invariable law to our present condition, for excessive pleas- 
ure to become a poison. 19. He was spoken of as a candidate 
for the presidency. 20. That loss was little cared for, on 
account of other abundant resources. 21. The house had been 
set fire to, by some villain. 22. The child was much set by, in 
the family, and was taken great delight in, among all the 
friends. 

Exercise in Consteuction. 

495. 1. Construct five sentences in the idiomatic use of it, where the 
logical subject is an infinitive; and three similar to the forms explained in § 486. 

2. Construct five sentences in the idiomatic use of there, in two of which the 
verb to be shall express existence, and in the others shall be a copula only. 

3. Form two Questions in the idiomatic use of it, and two in the idiomatic 
use of there. 

The use of Shall and Will. 

496. In giving the future tense of the indicative mode, that 
form only was given which indicates simply future occurrence ; 
that is, shall in the first person, and will in the second and 
third. 

If we reverse these auxiliaries and use will in the first 
person and shall in the second and third, a purpose more or less 
earnest is expressed by the speaker. 

497. The following illustrations will show the varying 
significations of shall and will in the different grammatical 
persons : 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 143 

1. If in the use of these words in the first person, I say, I 
shall see the man to-morrow, I only express the fact that the 
event of my seeing him will occur. 

But if I say, I will see the man to-morrow, I express a pur- 
pose to see him and may be expected to take pains to do it. 

2. If in the 2d person I say, You will perform the service 
better than B, I only state a fact. 

But if I say, You shall perform the service better than he 
did, I express a purpose to secure such a performance from you 
in some way. 

3. If in the 3d person I say, B. will leave town to-morrow, 
I simply declare that the event will take place. 

But if I say, He shall leave town to-morrow, I may be ex- 
pected to take measures to secure his departure. 

4. The usage regarding these words in the future tense pre- 
vails also in the future perfect. 

In asking questions in these tenses, we use shall when the 
party answering should use shall and will when he should use 
will. 

498. The foregoing illustrations are believed to exhibit 
the true use of shall and ivill. But it should be observed that 
the relation of the parties speaking, spoken to, and spoken of, 
and the circumstances in which the language is uttered, will 
materially modify its signification. 

499. We often meet with a gross error in the use of will 
in the first person, where no purpose is intended ; as, When my 
neighbor tells me, "If I accommodate you I will wrong B," 
which, in good English, means, "If I accommodate you, I pur- 
pose to wrong B." 

Some would say, "In pursuing this road we will be lost in 
the swamp and destroyed by alligators;" which properly means 
that we purpose to be lost and destroyed. 

But no grammarian approves such language, where purpose 
is not intended, and no accurate writer employs it. 

THE INDIKECT OBJECT MADE SUBJECT. 

500. There is a peculiar idiom found in the use of some 
verbs which admit an indirect object, that needs explanation. 
In changing propositions from an active to a passive form, all 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

transitive verbs admit the direct object of the active voice as 
subject in the passive. And a few of those transitive verbs 
which admit an indirect object, with the direct, in the active 
voice, frequently make that indirect object the subject in the 
passive. 

501. This idiom prevails in the use of the verbs allow, ask, 
deny, give, grant, offer, pay, promise, provide, refuse, teach, and 
tell. And probably a few others sometimes admit it. 

502. Illustration. — We say, "The teacher allowed us a 
vacation." And making the passive form as usual with transi- 
tive verbs, we say, "A vacation was allowed us by the teacher." 
But we also say, "We were allowed a vacation by the teacher;" 
where the indirect object of the active voice becomes the subject 
in the passive. 

Notice also the following. — "The father denied Samuel his 
request." His request was denied Samuel ; or, Samuel was 
denied his request. 

And again: "The officer refused the gentleman a passport." 
A passport was refused the gentleman ; or, The gentleman was 
refused a passport. 

503. The question here arises, what element shall we call 
a word situated like passport in the last sentence ? Although 
the direct object in the active voice, it is not subject, or object, 
in any proper sense, in the passive. It has become an adverbial 
element,* indicating that in respect to which the action of the 
verb is performed. 

Exercise XLIX. 

504. On the use of shall and will, and indirect object made subject. Where 
shall or will occurs, tell whether the declaration expresses future occurrence 
simply, or a purpose also, and whose action or what event the put-pose respects. 

1. I shall be in St. Louis to-morrow. 2. I will return home 
next week. 3. Shall you be at my house this week ? 

Rem. 1.— Such nouns as home and week are sometimes used adverbially to express 
where or when. 

* Perhaps, calling a noun thus situated, adverbial, may strike some minds 
strangely at first. But what is an adverbial element of manner, if not one that 
being neither attributive nor objective, expresses in a general way how the import 
of a verb is to be taken. Compare §§ 454,456. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 145 

4. Will my detention disco-mniode you? 5. I will return as 
soon as practicable. 6. You will need more funds to accom- 
plish that undertaking. 7. Will you send your family to 
Europe this season? 8. It will conduce very much to the 
health and general improvement of your son. 9. It will be 
very pleasant for them to spend the summer in those historic 
countries. 10. I will loan you any needful amount of money. 

11. Shall my banker in London be directed to honor your draft? 

12. Shall I loan you my European guide book? 

Rem. 2.— This would be correctly answered by You shall, or You shall not, since 
this would express the purpose or wish of the one interrogated, which is the in- 
formation desired. But to express his wish more mildly, he would perhaps say, 
"I shall be pleased if you will loan it to me." The principle, however, holds that 
in assertive sentences shall in the 2d pers. expresses the purpose or wish of the 
speaker, and the inquiry for that statement is properly made by shall in the 1st 
person. 

13. My son, you shall have the history of England as a birth- 
day present. 14. Edward shall bring it to you on that day. 
15. Those suspicious people shall leave my tenant house. 16. 
I will rent it to a better family. 17. Will Mr. Brown want a 
house in the city this summer ? 18. He will be a good tenant and 
shall have the offer of it. 19. You will be satisfied in the event. 
20. Our government allows wounded soldiers a pension. 21. 
W T ounded soldiers are allowed a pension by the government. 22. 
The father refused his son permission to enter the army. 23. 
Permission .was refused on account of insufficient health. 
24. The "son was refused permission by the father. 25. He 
was offered a reward to stay at home. 26. The owner asks a 
large sum for that fine house. 27. He has been paid his price. 
28. We were told the story by some travelers. 29. The miners 
promised the capitalist one-fourth of the profits of the mine. 30. 
One-fourth of the profits of the mine was promised to the capitalist. 
31. The capitalist was promised one-fourth of the profits of the 
mine. 32. I taught a German the English language. 33. The 
English language was taught to a German by me. 34. A Ger- 
man was taught the English language. 35. "All the inhabit- 
ants of the isles shall be astonished at thee." 36. "I will 
cause thee to serve thine enemies in a strange land." 27. 
"Why will ye die, O house of Israel?" 38. "Thou shalt not 
inherit in our father's house." 39, "You shall not go very far 
away." 40. "Thou shalt see the reward of the wicked." 

—10 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. 3.— Shall, in the 2d and 3d pers., sometimes expresses a necessary cer- 
tainty in the mind of the speaker, rather than any purpose on his part; as, in the 
last example. A corresponding inquiry may be for the same thought, like the fol- 
lowing: "Shall a trumpet be blown in the city, and the people not be afraid?" 

41. "The Lord shall shake his hand over the river and smite it 
in the seven streams, and make men go over dry shod." 42. 
"The Lord shall return thy wickedness upon thine own head." 
43. "Then shall the dust return to the earth, and the spirit 
shall return unto God." 44. Will you furnish me any assist- 
ance in the enterprise contemplated? 45. I shall be obliged to 
invest large sums of money. 

Exercise in Construction. 

505. In the use of shall or will, write three sentences in which the speaker 
expresses his purpose in respect to some future act or state of his own. 

And three sentences in which he declares the occurrence of a future act or 
state of his own without expressing purpose. 

2. Write five sentences in the passive voice with that as subject which in the 
active voice would be the indirect object. 

Rem. 2.— Observe in § 501 what verbs admit this usage. 

THE GERUND. 

506. When a participial form of the verb in its higher con- 
struction resembles a noun, it is called a gerund, cf. def. of 
verb, § 73, and higher construction. § 382. 

That is, when its relation to other words than those by which 
it is modified, is the same as that of a noun, it is called a 
gerund. But it receives or may receive the same objective or 
adverbial modifications that the verb from which it is derived 
can receive. 

507. Most of the same words and combinations of words 
which constitute participles, may be used as gerunds. For 
both uses they are derived in the same manner from the root 
of the verb and in the use of auxiliaries. They take also their 
meaning from the finite verb. When used as participles their 
higher construction is like the adjective, as has been explained. 
§ 196, sqq. 

508. These two distinct uses originated in different ways, 
and had once different forms. But in our present English they 
have the same form. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 147 

An account of their origin would be interesting to a student 
in the history of language, but can be of no real advantage to 
beginners in grammar. The beginner's concern is with the 
present state of the language, a knowledge of which is a pre- 
requisite for understanding its history. 

509. Any present or preperfect participle in the Common 
and Passive Forms, and the preperfect participle in the Pro- 
gressive Form of the verb, may be used as a gerund. 

Some of these specific forms are rare as participles, and still 
more rare as gerunds, while others are very common in both 
uses. Their use as participles has been shown. 

Participles of the Com. Form, §§ 196, 211. Participles of 
the Pas. and Prog. Forms, §§ 363, 364. 

510. An illustration of the most frequently occurring uses 
of the gerund will now be given. 

511. I. As subject of a proposition. 

Running swiftly causes fatigue. His being wounded prevented 
his escape. 

Rem.— Being wounded is subject of prevented, and as a substantive is modified 
by the pos. pronoun his. 

Their having been disappointed grieved them sorely. 

512. II. As a predicate substantive with the 
copula. 

A swift movement on the feet is running. The cause of his 
capture was his having been wounded. 

Rem.— The act of wounding completed on him is expressed in the words having 
been wounded. These words as a substantive phrase, form a gerund, and are pred- 
icated of cause; and as a substantive they are modified by the possessive pronoun 
his. 

513. III. As direct or attributive object. 

The man practices hunting. The news of his mother's sick- 
ness secured his returning immediately. 

Rem. 1.— Here the gerund, though having relation to the verb as direct object, 
is modified by an adverb. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We call making letters with a pen, writing. 

Rem. 2.— Making is direct obj. of call, and writing attr. obj. 

514. IV. As object of a preposition forming 
various elements, generally adverbial. 

He delighted in swimming. The thief obtained the goods by 
entering the building through a back window. 

Rem.— Here the gerund entering is the object of the preposition by, making a 
prepositional phrase modifying obtained, in regard to manner. At the same time 
the gerund is modified by the noun building as direct object, and the adverbial 
phrase, through a back window. 

515. By far the most frequent use of the gerund is in the 
common form in ing, and with a preposition. And in any of 
its relations above mentioned, the gerund may be modified by 
any objective or adverbial element that can modify the verb 
from which it is derived, or by a possessive form of a noun or 
pronoun. 

516. And the gerund is sometimes modified by a definitive 
adjective; as, a, the, this, etc., but it does not then properly 
admit of an object or an adverb as modifier. ^ If modification 
other than the adjective is required at the same time, it must 
be followed by a prepositional phrase commonly commencing 
with of. The following are examples of this usage : The sail- 
ing of ships in winter is dangerous. Covetousness is a ivorship- 
ing of idols. We had not in view this making u/p of a claim. 

517. Yet we sometimes find a gerund preceded by a defini- 
tive adjective, and at the same time modified by an object or 
adverb. But good taste seems to revolt at mingling in the 
modification of the same word the latter elements so character- 
istic of the verb, with the former that so distinctly mark the 
noun. 

Exercise L. 

On Gerunds. 

518. In this exercise will be found some participial forms that are not 

gerunds, and some sentences that contained no such forms. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 149 

1. "The reading of the report occupied an hour." 2. "Steal- 
ing is taking without liberty." 3. "I intend doing it." — Gibbs. 

4. "Another fault is allowing it to supersede the use of a point." 

5. "Writing requires effort." "Eising early is healthy." 6. The 
horses are here, the driver is away. 7. "I remember meeting 
him." — Gibbs. 8. "She regrets not having read it. — Same. 

9. "Polite is employed to signify their being highly civilized." — 
Blair. 

Rem. 1.— Here we have the form of the present passive participle, being civilized, 
used substantively, i.e., as a gerund, and as the direct obj. of the infinitive to sig- 
nify, and modified by a possessive pronoun and an adverb. 

10. "Since the days of Samson, there has been no instance of a 
man's accomplishing a task so stupendous." — Gibbs. 

Rem. 2.— Subject, instance, modified by 2d class adj. ele. of accomplishing, 
made with a gerund, and this mod. by pos. form man's, and direct obj. task. 

11. "My going will depend on my father's giving his consent." 
— Gibbs. 12. "We should avoid giving pain to others." — 
Greene. 13. A desire to learn should be cherished by every 
young man. 14. "The confederacy of Babel having been con- 
founded, was split into a diversity of tongues." 15. Those 
trees will bear pruning more yet. 16. Writing is making letters 
with a pen or pencil. 17. "On approaching the house, the 
sound of a bell was faintly heard." — Greene. 15. "Adopting 
the current rate might hurt the credit of other securities. "-»- 
Madison papers. 19. "The increasing of the number of these 
relations is contrary to the doctrine of Becker." — Gibbs. 20. 
"Exciting such disturbances is unlawful." — Same. 21. "Rightly 
understanding a sentence depends very much on a knowledge of 
its grammatical structure." — Same. 22. "Not attending to 
this rule is the cause of a very common error." — Same. 23. 
"Acting thus would gratify one passion, or acting otherwise 
would gratify another." — Campbell. 25. "This was in fact con- 
verting the deposit to his own use." — Gibbs. 25. "It will be 
but ill, venturing thy soul upon that." — Bunyan. 

Rem. 3— Grammatical subject, It, but the ger. venturing in apposition with it 
expresses the real subject, about which the declaration is made. Will be ill 2d class 
predicate; but an adv. in sense of only. 

26. "What do you think of his writing a letter?" — "We should 
avoid breaking a promise." — Greene. 27. The penurious father 
being filled with the desire of wealth, entirely neglected the 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

moral and intellectual culture of his children. 28. The wolf 
being much exasperated by the wound, sprang upon the horse. 
29. Seeing is believing. 30. The inmates of the crowded thea- 
ter having been alarmed by the cry of fire, rushed in confusion 
for the doors, and trod down some of their number in attempt- 
ing to escape. 31. His having been elected to the United States 
Senate was a proper reason for his resigning the office of gov- 
ernor. 32. The crocuses blooming in the garden attracted the 
early bees. 33. "He came near being devoured by a panther." 
— Greene. 34. "The case is well worth considering." — Same. 

Rem. 4.— A gerund may be an advl. ele. mod. an adj. as a noun may be. See 
§§ 455, 456. 

35. "They came upon him, without his being apprised of their 
approach." — Greene. 36. "In avoiding one error do not fall 
into another." 37. By consulting the best authors he became 
learned." 38. "Antithesis is the placing of contrary or oppo- 
site objects in contrast." 39. "Apostrophe is a turning off from 
the subject to address some other person or thing." 40. A ship 
gliding over the waves is a beautiful object. 41. Carlo's barking 
awakened the weary travelers too early. 42. The whole shelf 
of china falling down with much breaking and clattering startled 
us all. 43. I insist on sending him the horse immediately. 
[Direct and indirect object of a gerund.] 44. "A miser grows 
rich by seeming poor, an extravagant man becomes poor by 
seeming rich." — Shenstone. 45. "Punctuation is the art of 
dividing written composition by means of points." — Greene. 
46. "Analysis is resolving sentences into their component 
parts." — Sivinton. 47. "Beaching the summit of the mountains 
was a feat hazardous to undertake." — Same. 

48. "Gayly chattering to the clattering 

Of the brown nuts downward pattering . 

Leap the squirrels red and gray." — Wlrittier. 

Exercise in Construction. 

519. 1. Write five sentences with a gerund as subject. 

2. Five, with a gerund in base of 2d class predicate. 

3. Five, with a gerund as direct or attributive object. 

4. Ten, with a gerund as the obj. of a preposition. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 151 

SECOND CLASS INFINITIVES, PAETICIPLES, AND 
GEKUNDS. 

520. An infinitive or participle form of the verb to be, united 
with a noun, adjective, prepositional phrase, or adverb, makes a 
second class infinitive, participle, or gerund. 

521. In treating of the verb to be as copula, there has been 
shown the necessity of taking with it a noun, adjective, or other 
term following, in order to make a declaration. The verb to be 
alone, when used as a copula, declares nothing. And the predi- 
cate in such sentences; as, "The man is poor," "The man is a 
soldier, " according to the definition is a second class element ; 
for both words is and poor, or is and soldier, are necessary to 
constitute the element, and neither modifies the other. 

And hence from the second class predicate, is poor, we have 
the second class infinitives, to be poor, to have been poor; and 
the second class participles, being poor and having been poor; 
and we have the same participial forms used as gerunds, which 
are also second class elements. 

522. The propriety of terming these phrases infinitives, par- 
ticiples, and gerunds will more clearly appear, if we take a form 
of this kind that we can compare with an attributive verb. 

523. Let us compare the attributive verb to fear with the 
second class form to be fearful, and notice how nearly the spe- 
cific forms of each correspond in signification and use. 

He fears, = He is fearful. He feared, = He was fearful. 

He will fear, = He will be fearful. To fear, = To be fearful. 

To have feared, = To have been fearful. Fearing, = Being fearful. 

524. These forms may be used interchangeably with as 
little difference of meaning, as usually attends terms called 
synonymous ; as, To fear is To be fearful, Fearing is Being 
fearful. 

Their fearing the enemy caused a panic. 

Their being fearful of the enemy caused a panic. 

The general's having feared the enemy was the cause of de- 
feat. 

The general's having been fearful of the enemy was the cause 
of defeat. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

525. Take a second class form made by a noun and the 
copula, and compare to love with to be a lover. 

To love money is to be a lover of money. 

That man being an ardent lover of money is very penurious. 
His loving money so much caused him to be dishonest. 
His being such a lover of money caused him to be dishonest. 
The man's having loved money extravagantly ruined his char- 
acter. 

The man's having been sua. extravagant lover of money ruined 
his character. 

526. Some of these second class forms are also used to rep- 
represent an abstract action or state, with the same freedom as 
the corresponding forms of the attributive verb ; as, To fear is 
to be fearful. To sin is to be a sinner. (i To be good is to be 
happy." — Greene. "It is pleasant to be virtuous and good." — 
Murray. And we say, To be lovely is to be worthy of being loved. 
And to be hateful is a sufficient cause for being hated. 

527. These forms then should be termed second class ele- 
ments ; or specifically second class infinitives, participles, or 
gerunds, as the case may be. 

528. For further illustration, numerous examples of the 
various uses of these several elements are given. 

Obs.— A large variety of examples is introduced to show the extensive prev- 
alence of this mode of construction, and to make the learner familiar with its most 
frequent forms. This has seemed the more necessary because this niode of 
describing these phrases has not before appeared in any treatise on grammar. 
And, if made familiar, it will be found to explain clearly and justly a very frequent 
construction, which has heretofore received very awkward explanation, or none 
at all. Abbreviations will be manifest from the nature of the case; as, ele. for 
element; or from the synopsis of elements. 

The second class elements referred to are in italics. 

529. I. The second class infinitive. 

1. Made with copula and adjective. 

To be industrious is the duty of all. (sbj.) The duty of all is 
to be industrious, (precl.) A desire to be industrious is commend- 
able, (adj. ele.) He was eager to be industrious, (advl. ele.) 
The man aims to be induitrious. (advl. ele. final cause.) 

2. Made with copula and noun. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 153 

To have been a good mechanic is commendable, (sbj.) My 
son's ambition is to he a lawyer, (pred.) He seems to have been 
an honest man. (attr. ob.) It was supposed to be lie. The friends 
thought it to be him. 

Rem.— A pro. may of course stand in place of a noun in a 2d class inf. par. or 
ger. when occasion requires. But a pro. in an inf. used as attr. obj. must be in 
the nom. case, when that object expresses the attribute of the subject, and in the 
obj. when it expresses the attribute of the object. 

3. Made with copula and prepositional phrase. 

To be in affliction is painful, (sbj.) The lot of man is to be 
in affliction, (pred.) My brother wished to be in France through 
the winter, (di. obj.) Father requested him to be at home on 
Christmas, (attr. obj.) 

4. Made with copula and adverb. 

To have been away at that time was my misfortune, (sbj.) My 
anxious desire was to be here, (pred.) The necessity to be there 
inforced my absence, (adj. ele.) My cousins did not wish to be 
here. (di. obj.) 

530. II. Second class participles. 

1. Made with copula and adjective. 

My friend being industrious has acquired considerable prop- 
erty. His neighbor having been extravagant became involved in 
debt. 

2. Made with copula and noun. 

One stranger being a physician gave advice and assistance to 
the wounded gratuitously. Another stranger having been a river 
pilot was of great service in saving the lives of passengers. 

3. Made with copula and prepositional phrase. 

"Man being in honor abideth not." The hunter having been in 
too much haste frightened his game. 

4. Made with copula and adverb. 

A reporter having been within gave a full account of the 
matter. My father being here relieves my anxiety. 

Rem.— Some grammarians would think it a sufficient explanation of the use of 
the adverb in these sentences, to style it a first class element modifying the parti- 
ciple. But the participle of the copula by itself would have no significance, hence 
the necessity of regarding it with the adverb as a second class element. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

531. III. Second class gerund. 

1. Made with copula and adjective. 

Being indolent is a disgrace, (sbj.) His fault is being deceit- 
ful, (pred.) The neighbors doubted his being industrious, (di. 

2. Made with copula and noun. 

The neighbors did not credit his being the culprit, (di. obj.) 
We had no knowledge of its having been he. (2cl. adj. ele.) The 
parents were greatly delighted with their Charlie's being vale- 
dictorian. (2cl. advl. ele. of cause.) 

3. Made with copula and prepositional phrase. 

His being in the army secured some valuable experience, (sbj.) 
The voters disregarded his having been in the army. (di. obj.) 
Our captain was much distressed at our being in such circum- 
stances. (2cl. advl. ele. of cause.) 

4. Made with copula and adverb, 

I did not think of his having been above, (advl. ele. mnr.) 
The outside throng had no idea of such a crowd's being within. 
(adj. ele.) 

532. IV. The En-Pe (np.) element formed with 
second class participles. 

1. With copula and adjective. 

The workmen having been very diligent, the contract was com- 
pleted in due season. 

2. With copula and noun. 

The hawk being a bird of prey, the smaller birds shun his 
approach. 

3. With copula and prepositional phrase. 

There having been lions in the forest, our travelers did not dare 
to enter. 

Rem. 1.— The adverb there before the participle transfers the noun after it, as in 
the case of a finite verb. 

4. With copula and adverb. 

The surgeon being abroad, the messenger immediately returned. 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 155 

533. In parsing an adjective, noun, or other word in the second class elements 
here explained, describe its properties as apart of speech, and state what second 
class infinitive, participle, or gerund it forms with the copula. That is, whether 
present, perfect, or preperfect. The element is then to be disposed of in its rela- 
tions as any other element of like nature. 



Exercise LI. 

534. Second Class Infinitines, Participles, and Gerunds. 

1. I prefer to be studious. 2. To be obedient to parents is 
the duty of children. 3. "To be a king is to be a sovereign." — 
Greene. 4. "Being a scholar is not being an idler." — Same. 

5. "To be an Englishman in London, a Frenchman in Paris, a 
Spaniard in Madrid, is no easy matter." 

Rem.— Three subjects to a singular verb, because the assertion is not of each 
separately, but the doing of all three is the performance of which the assertion is 
made. 

6. "He seems to be the leader of the party." — Murray. 7. "We 
hope now to be fine." — Franklin. 8. "I resolved to be better." 
— same. [Resolved in this sense is intrans. and to be better 
attr. obj.] 9. The stream so greatly disturbed seemed to be 
perfectly white. 10. "The inhabitants readily believed him to 
be an angel sent from Heaven for their deliverance." — Dwight. 
11. "I began to be very uneasy for the situation of the 
preacher." — Wirt. 12. "This it is to be greatly virtuous." 
[To be virtuous, 2d class inf. ap. to it.'] 13. "Everybody is 
ashamed not to be expensive and fashionable." — T. Flint. [Inf. 
advl. ele. of cause.] 14. "Mere idlers cannot have respect 
enough for themselves to be comfortable." 15. "They seem to 
be born with an instinctive determination to be independent." 
16. "This ornament so horridly ugly and disfiguring seems 
to be the utmost finish of Indian taste." 17. "There is 
not apt to be a great indifference to pecuniary claims." [To 
be = to exist, attributive verb, modifies apt adverbially.] 18. 
Money comes to be in question. [2cl. inf. attr. obj.] 19. "In 
reply to the general charge of being a public nuisance, they « 
point to the hundreds of schools established in different parts 
of the empire." — Foreign Missionary. [Being nuisance 2d class 
gerund.] 20. "Knowing him to be my superior, I cheerfully 
submitted." 21. "A young man so learned and virtuous prom- 
ises to be a very useful member of society." — Murray. 22, 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"We do not cease to be friends." — same. 23. "We are made 
to be serviceable to others." — same. 24. "To be faithful among 
the faithless argues great strength of principle." — same. 25. 
"Mountains appear to be like so many wens or unnatural pro- 
tuberances on the face of the earth." — same. [To be like 2cl. 
inf. wens and protuberances, nouns used advly. cf. § 455.] 
26. "He is a person of great abilities and is likely to be a very 
useful member of community." — [Likely a precl. adj.] 27. 
"Prophesies and miracles proclaimed Jesus Christ to be the 
Savior of the world." 28. "It is our duty to be just and kmd 
to our fellow-creatures, and to be pious and faithful to our 
Maker." 29. "To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise 
benevolence towards others, and to cultivate piety towards God, 
are the sure means of becoming peaceful and happy." — Mur- 
ray. [To be of mind, 2cl. inf. one of the sbjs. of are, peaceful 
and happy, attr. obj. after the gerund becoming.'] 30. "The 
infirmities of body or mind are, perhaps, to be your own lot." — 
same. 31. Give the boy, Christopher, a lesson in grammar 
to recite. 32. "The profligate man is seldom or never found to 
be a good husband, a good father, or a beneficent neighbor." 

33. "He guiding, we took the forest path in confidence." — Greene. 

34. "They refused to begin the contest, we absent." — same. 35. 
"They assisting, the performance will be successful. — same. 
36. "Bodies appear more gigantic on account of their being 
disproportioned and misshapen." — Murray. 37. Did I deny 
his having been a good teacher? 38. The man's having been 
a successful physician for many years, secured him the confi- 
dence of the whole vicinity. 39. The boy's having been thievish 
in school, caused his expulsion. 40. The testimony given 
proved Henry's having been at home all that day. 

41. Aspiring to be gods, the angels fell, 
Aspiring to be angels, men rebel. 
42. The man's being in trouble awakened the sympathy of his 
neighbors. 43. That job having been finished, there was no 
more work obtained. 44. The prisoner's having been in the 
house just before the theft, caused him to be strongly suspected. 

Exercise in Construction. 

535. Construct various sentences, some containing second class infinitives, 
some second class participles, some second class gerunds, and some with second 
class np. elements. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 157 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

536. Our attention has been confined hitherto to the illus- 
tration of the simple proposition. 

537. But a relative pronoun is found only in a complex 
proposition, where one proposition becomes an element in 
another. 

538. A relative pronoun performs the function of a 

pronoun and a connective. 

In the sentence, "I esteem the boy who loves study, " the word 
who is a relative pronoun, and stands for the same individual 
as boy, which is hence its antecedent. And the last part of this 
sentence, viz., who loves study, is by itself a proposition, for it 
includes a subject and predicate. 

539. And this proposition is joined to the principal propo- 
sition, "I esteem the boy," by the relation of its pronoun, who. 
It modifies boy, in the same manner that an adjective would 
modify it, and is a third class element. See § 405. 

We can express the same idea by an adjective, as follows : I 
esteem the studious boy. 

540. The proposition in which the relative pronoun is found, 
is called the dependent or subordinate proposition, and to distin- 
guish it from other subordinate propositions, it is (failed a rela- 
tive clause. 

541. The relative pronoun does not change its form for 
number or person. 

But it is taken to be of the same number and person as its 
antecedent, and the verb must agree with it as such. Hence 
the verb loves, in the example, is formed in the third person 
singular because the antecedent of who is third person singular. 
If I say "I esteem the boys who love study," I drop the s from 
the verb loves to make it agree with who in the plural, because 
its antecedent is plural. 

542. In the following sentences : They must leave me who 
am lame ; They must leave thee who art lame ; They must 
leave him who is lame ; They must leave the men who are 



158 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

lame ; the verb agreeing with who becomes am, art, is, are, to 
agree in number and person with the antecedent. Hence the 
following rule : 

543. The relative pronoun is taken to be of the same per- 
son and number as the antecedent, and the verb must agree 
with it accordingly. 

544. The relative pronoun who, like the personal pronouns, 
has three distinct forms for the three cases, viz : 

Nom. Who, Pos. Whose, Obj. Whom. 

545. The following sentences will show the manner in which they are used 
in a relative clause: 

1. I admire the boy ivho loves study; 

2. I admire the boy ivhose conduct pleased you ; 

3. I admire the boy whose conduct you praised; 

4. I admire the boy whom you esteem ; 

5. I admire the boy with whom you were pleased. 

The relative pronoun must stand near its antecedent ; hence 
when object or modifier of the object, that object must come 
before the verb and its subject. This appears in the preceding 
examples. 

546. The relative clause frequently stands between the 
parts of the principal proposition, directly following the ante- 
cedent, as in the following examples: ''The farmer who ivorks 
busily secures fine crops;" "The general whom you saw will 
leave to-morrow." In these sentences, the relative clauses in 
italics being omitted, the remaining portions, read together, will 
show the principal propositions. 

547. The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and 
that. 

Three of these are the same words that are used as interrog- 
ative pronouns. — § 416. As relatives they do not introduce a 
question, but have an antecedent expressed in the principal 
proposition, which they represent in a subordinate clause. 
When they are interrogatives, they inquire for something not 
expressed, which they are used to represent. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 159 

548. Who is always a pronoun, relative or interrogative, 
and is employed only to represent rational beings. 

549. Which is generally a relative or interrogative pronoun ; 
but sometimes it is used as a relative or interrogative adjective; 
this use has been already shown. § 55 and § 417, 2. 

550. Which, as a relative pronoun, in modern usage is con- 
fined to irrational animals and inanimate things. Its use may 
be illustrated as follows : 

"I admire the horse which moves gracefully ;" 
"I admire the horse which you admire;" 
' "I admire the horse with which you are pleased." 

It has no change of form for the cases, but has the same 
form when object as when subject, as is seen in the two last 
examples. And as it has no form to denote possession, whose, 
the possessive case of who, is sometimes used for its possessive, 
as in the following example : "I admire the horse whose move- 
ment you admire." 

551. The word that, although frequently a definitive adjec- 
tive (§ 49), or adjective pronoun (§ 457), or conjunction, is also, 
quite often, a relative pronoun. 

552. The word that is a relative pronoun when who, whom, 
or ivhich can be substituted for it and make good sense. 

As a relative, it may represent either rational beings, or irra- 
tional animals, or inanimate things. It has no different forms 
for subject or object, but ivhose is sometimes used for its pos- 
sessive case. 

Its use as a relative is illustrated as follows : 

. I admire the horse that moves gracefully ; 
I admire the horse that you admire ; 
I respect the man that conducts honorably; 
I respect the man that you respect. 

553. That as a relative, may, as in the sentences given, 
be either the subject or object of the verb in the relative clause, 
but it can not stand directly after a preposition. We cannot 
say, I admire the horse with that you are pleased ; or, I esteem 
the man with that you are delighted. But if necessary to form 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,. 

a prepositional phrase, in the use of that as a relative, the 
preposition must be removed to the end of the clause. We 
can say, I admire the horse that you are pleased with. 
I esteem the man that you are delighted with. This is a pe- 
culiarity which probably arises from the danger of mistaking, 
in the other expression, the relative that for the adjective pro- 
noun that. 

554. When the word what is a relative pronoun, it sus- 
tains a double relation, being both relative and antecedent. 

555. What is a relative pronoun when the words that which, 
or those which, can be substituted for it without changing the 
sense ; as, 

"They have furnished what will delight us;" or that which 
will delight us. In such cases the word what is an element 
in each proposition. In the example given, it is the object 
of the verb, have furnished, in the principal proposition, and 
subject of the verb, will delight, in the relative clause, and 
should be explained in analysis as having both relations. In 
the first relation it is an adjective pronoun, denoting the thing 
or things furnished, in the second it performs the function of a 
relative. 

556. In the following sentence, "This is what he desired," 
the word, ivhat, is a predicate pronoun in the principal proposi- 
tion, This is what, and the direct object of desired, in the rela- 
tive clause, ivhat he desired. 

557. In this sentence, "We are concerned about what he 
will do," what with the preposition about forms a prepositional 
modifier of cause to the verb, are concerned, in the principal 
preposition, and it also stands as the object of the verb, iviU 
do, in the relative clause." 

558. "I knew not what it was." Here what is the object of 
knew in the principal proposition, and a predicate pronoun in 
the relative part of the sentence. 

559. "He took notice of what happened." Here of what is 
a prepositional modifier of the adjective class, to the noun 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 161 

notice in the principal proposition ; and what is at the same 
time subject of happened in the relative clause. 

560. "What is right for one is right for another.'" Here 
what is the subject of both propositions, as will appear by sub- 
stituting that which in its place. 

561. It is always understood that the noun or element for 
which any pronoun stands, is called its antecedent, whether 
preceding it, as the term imports, and which is most common, 
or coming after it in position. The antecedent of a personal 
pronoun may be in the same simple proposition with itself, or 
in a different member of the same compound or complex propo- 
sition, or in a wholly different sentence. But the antecedent of 
a relative pronoun is always in another member of a complex 
proposition. 

COMPOUND EELATIVES. 

562. Compound relatives are formed by annexing ever, 
so, or soever, to the simple relative pronouns, making whoso, 
whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. 

563. They have the effect to render the reference of the 
pronoun general, and applicable to any one of a class of per- 
sons or things referred to ; as, whoever = any one who ; which- 
ever or whatsoever = anything which. 

564. The compounds of who are always used as pro- 
nouns, the others sometimes as pronouns, but often as adjec- 
tives. 

In this sentence, "Whoever trusts him will be deceived;" 
whoever may have the antecedent, any one, understood, as the 
subject of will he deceived, or be regarded as having the antece- 
dent included in it, like the word, what. It is used with and 
without the antecedent expressed. 

565. "Whichever hope you entertain will disappoint you." 
Whichever in this case modifies hope like a definitive adjective, 

—11 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and gives it a double reference resembling ivhat. In one refer- 
ence it is the subject of will disappoint, in the other the object 
of entertain. 

568. Whatever is used in like manner; as, "His parents 
are anxious concerning whatever course he pursues." The 
words, whatever course make with the preposition concerning an 
adverbial element modifying anxious, and at the same time they 
are the object of pursues. The simple word, what, may be used 
adjectively in the same manner and give a double reference to 
the noun to which it is attached ; as, He has obtained what 
things they desired. 

567. Whatever and whatsoever are sometimes used with an 
antecedent expressed; as, "Whatsoever they bid you observe, 
that observe and do." — Mat. 23:3. That is the antecedent of 
whatsoever, though after it in position. 

568. Whichever and whatever when joined to nouns, as in 
some sentences preceding are properly termed relative adjectives, 
since they modify like adjectives and have reference also to 
some antecedent expressed or implied, [cf. Phil. 4:8.] 

569. Which is frequently a relative adjective, as in the fol- 
lowing passages : "For which cause this city was destroyed." — 
Ezra, 4:15. "Unto ivhich promise our twelve tribes hope to 
come." — Acts, 26:7. 

570. And which and what are frequently interrogative adjec- 
tives; as, Which man did you see? W T hat book have you 
bought? [cf. § 417, 2-5.] 

Exercise LII. 

On Kelative Pronouns. 

571. Explain all elements and parse all words. If any difficulty is found, 
refer back to the explanations, and be sure to acquire a proper understanding of 
every sentence. 

1. A man who is deceitful can never be trusted. 2. Here is 
the man who deserves commendation. 3. Ye, therefore, who 
love mercy, teach your sons to love it too. 4. The lesson which 
was assigned was too long. 5. The credulity which has faith 
in goodness, is a sign of goodness. 6. "He that getteth wisdom 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 163 

loveth his own soul." 7. Cherish true patriotism, whose root 
is benevolence. 8. The Bible teaches a religion whose origin 
is divine. 9. "Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I 
unto you." — Acts 17:23. 10. Compassion is an emotion of 
which we should never be ashamed. 11. This is the rule to 
which we called his attention. 12. That is the same man that 
we met before. 13. "All that the Father hath given me shall 
come to me." 14. What comes from the heart goes to the 
heart. 15. What we call time enough, always proves little 
enough. 16. The man who is faithfully attached to religion, 
will be upright. 17. Those who wish for favors must assist 
others. IS. Whoever seeks the good of others will himself be 
blest. 19. "We should not encourage persons to do what they 
believe to be wrong." 20. Whichever way you take will lead to 
the city. 21. This is the subject to which he alluded. 22. 
"What maintains one vice would bring up two children. — Frank- 
lin. 23. "What private griefs they have, alas! I know not, 
that made them do it." 24. I will promote him whom I think 
most deserving. 25. This is the friend of whom I spoke. 26. 
We are obliged to associate with some men in the world whose 
characters we do not approve. 27. I will send the articles that 
you wished for. 

28. "Who lives to nature rarely can be poor, 
Who lives to fancy rarely can be rich. " 
29. Whoever told you that wonderful story is mistaken. 
30. "Happy and worthiest of esteem are those 

Whose words are bonds ; whose oaths are oracles ; 

Whose love, sincere ; whose thoughts, immaculate ; 

Whose tears, pure messengers sent from the heart ; 

Whose heart is tender, kind, and always true." 
31. "The pleasure of your evening party depends very much 
upon whom you have for company." 32. For him to be a 
scholar is impossible. 33. Whichever course suits you will suit 
me. 34. "Other sheep have I which are not of this fold." 35. 
"Eevolutions which are acted out in a day, have often been 
years or centuries in preparation." 36. "Thou that makest thy 
boast of the law, through breaking the law, dishonorest thou 
God ?" [The first thou a term of address.] 37. We are inter- 
ested in whatever occupation you follow. 38. "I know not what 
course others may take." 39. "That which is luxury to him to 
whom it is new, is none to those to whom it is familiar." 40, 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Did you ever hear of any who are called ungrateful? 41. 
"There stood by me this night the angel of God, whose I am 
and whom I serve." [am whose, a 2cl. pred. cf. § 478.] 42. "The 
few opulent who can afford to be good for nothing, precede in 
the emulation of fashion." — T. Flint.- 



Exercise in Construction. 



572. In the use of Relative Pronouns. 



This exercise will require careful thought, and perhaps some patience, on the 
part of the pupil. But he is advised to persevere and accomplish it. The knowl- 
edge acquired will reward the labor. 

1. Construct six sentences in the use of who, using it at least once in each of 
its cases, and once with a preposition, 

2. Construct six in the use of which, having which as subject in part, and as 
object in part, and in one at least as object of a preposition. 

3. Construct six in the use of that as a relative, in some of which it shall be 
subject, in others object, and in one it shall be object of a preposition. 

4. Construct twelve sentences in the use of what as a relative, so that in a 
part it shall be subject, and in part object, in the principal proposition; and In a 
part subject, and in a part object, in the relative clause; and so that in some it 
shall be found in a prepositional phrase. 



RULES OF CONSTRUCTION. 

573. The following rules embracing some of the leading 
principles of construction will be of use for ready reference. 

Kule I. Those definitive adjectives which imply individual- 
ity, modify nouns of the singular number only; and those 
which imply plurality, nouns of the plural number only. 

Eule II. A finite verb must agree with its subject in number 
and person. § 175. 

Eule III. When a noun is subject of a finite verb, it is 
always in the third person either singular or plural, and the 
verb must agree with it accordingly. § 166. 

Eule IV. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
gender, number, and person. § 158. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 165 

Eule V. A relative pronoun, though having no distinction 
of form for number or person, is taken to be of the same num- 
ber and person as its antecedent, and the verb must agree with 
it accordingly. §§ 541, 543. 

Eule VI. AYhen a finite verb or a pronoun should agree 
with two or more singular nouns connected by and, it must 
generally be in the plural number. § 110. 

Eule YII. When a finite verb has for subject, or a pronoun 
has for antecedent, two or more nouns connected by or, either — 
or, or neither — nor, it must agree with that which stands nearest 
to it. § 111. 

Rem.— But if the subjects require different forms of the verb it is better to 
express the verb with each. 

Eule VIII. A pronoun when subject of a finite verb must 
be in the nominative case. § 158. 

Eule IX. The possessive form of a noun or possessive case 
of a pronoun generally modifies some noun or substantive as an 
adjective element. §§34 and 158. 

Eule X. A pronoun when the object of a preposition, or the 
direct or indirect object of a verb, must be in the objective case. 
§ 158. 

Eule XI. A pronoun forming with the copula a second class 
predicate must be in the nominative case. It then is called a 
predicate nominative. § 189. 

Eule XII. A pronoun forming part of a second class infini- 
tive used as attributive object, must be in the objective case 
when following the active voice and direct object, and in the 
nominative case when following the passive voice or an intran- 
sitive verb. cf. Def. § 397. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Eule XIII. A pronoun used with a participle as adverb- 
ial element [§ 468], or as part of a second class gerund [§ 531], 
must be in the nominative case. 

Kule XIV. A pronoun used as the subject of an infinitive 
when that subject is different from the subject of the finite verb 
which it follows, must be in the objective case. [cf. § 441, 
Kem. 4.] Also when it is subject of an infinitive and consti- 
tutes with it the subject of a finite verb. [Eem. 6.] 

Eule XV. An infinitive may be the subject of a finite verb, 
or its predicate substantive ; it may be its direct or atiributive 
object, or its adverbial modifier; and it may form an objective 
or adverbial modifier to a participle, gerund, or other infinitive ; 
it may also form an adjective element modifying a noun. See 
classified exercises on the inf. § 436, sqq. 

Eule XVI. The gerund may be the subject of a finite verb 
or its predicate substantive ; it may be its direct or attributive 
object, or the object of a preposition. See § 510 sqq. 

Eule XVII. Infinitives, participles, and gerunds may be 
modified in the same manner as the finite verbs from which 
they are derived. 

Eule XVIII. The verbs bid, feel, hear, let, make, see, and 
some others, are followed by the infinitive as an attributive 
object without the particle to. And dare and need are followed 
by the infinitive as a direct object, without to. § 451. 

Eule XIX. When a verb has a collective noun for subject, 
it should be singular, if the declaration is of the united whole 
that the noun represents, but plural, if of the individuals that 
compose that whole. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 167 

Rule XX. When a verb has an infinitive, gerund, or sub- 
stantive proposition for its subject, it must be in the third 
person singular. 

CLASSIFICATION OP PROPOSITIONS. 

574. A subject and predicate united constitute a proposi- 
tion. 

Propositions are either independent or subordinate. 

575. An Independent Proposition makes a declara- 
tion by itself, and does not modify another proposition ; as, 

"That beautiful farm is mortgaged." It may stand in a sen- 
tence by itself, or be the principal of a complex proposition, or 
a member in a compound proposition. It may also ask a 
question, express a command, or make an assertion. 

576. A Subordinate Proposition is one that enters as an 
element in another proposition ; as, 

"I shall depart when he comes." Here are two propositions, 
for there are two subjects, and each has its separate predicate. 
But one, viz., when he comes, is an adverbial element of time, 
modifying the predicate of the other. It is, therefore, a subor- 
dinate proposition. So is the last clause in each of the follow- 
ing sentences : "The tree lies where it fell." "They reap as they 
soived." Such are also termed dependent or accessory proposi- 
tions. 

Compare the explanation of relative pronouns. § 538. 

577. A Principal Proposition is one that is modified 
by one or more subordinate propositions. 

The first proposition in each example in the last section is a 
principal proposition. It is termed principal in reference to its 
subordinates. It does not always stand first. In the following 
sentence it is last. "Where thou lodgest I will lodge." The 
subordinate frequently stands between the parts of the principal. 
See § 546. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

578. A Complex Proposition is a principal proposition 

taken together with one or more subordinate ones, which modify 

it; as, 

"The tree will lie where it falls." "The horse which I rode, 
was lame." "I have bought the house which stands by the 
park, and which my brother once owned." 

579. A Simple Proposition includes usually only one 
subject and one predicate. 

But it may have two or more subjects and one predicate ; as, 
"John and James study arithmetic ;" or, one subject and two 
or more predicates; as, "William studies arithmetic, teaches 
geography, and plays on the piano;" or, two or more subjects 
with two or more predicates, if in a single expression each 
predicate is declared of each subject; as, "Carrie, Annie, and 
Susan walked in the lawn, trundled the hoop, and played 
croquet." 

Rem.— Some authors seem to regard a simple proposition as consisting always 
of a single subject and a single predicate. But this view excludes a numerous 
class of such propositions as have just been given, and involves a very inconven- 
ient mode of disposing of them. Logically it is true, that every union of a subject 
and predicate, expressed or implied, is a proposition. And the last example given 
contains nine logical .propositions. But no one of these is asserted without the 
others. 

580. A Compound Proposition consists of two or 

more independent propositions connected and closely related in 

thought ; as, 

"I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat." "Life is short and 
art is long." "Times change and we change with them." "The 
way was long, the wind was cold, the minstrel was infirm and 
old." 

1. That two or more propositions should constitute one 
compound, they should be so closely related in thought, that 
the conception of the author would not be justly apprehended 
without taking them together. This connection will be more 
clearly perceived, when they present an alternation or contrast ; 
as, "You may study your lesson or you may write a composi- 
tion." The world is made for happiness, but many people 
make themselves miserable. 



ENGLISH GRA.MMAR. 169 

2. The independent propositions which enter in to make 
a compound, may one or more be principal propositions in com- 
plex ones ; and hence a compound proposition may consist of 
two or more simple ones, or two or more complex ones, or of 
propositions a part of which are simple and a part complex. 

581. Propositions are said to be co-ordinate, when 
they are alike independent, or when, being subordinate, they 
have the same relation to a principal proposition. The follow- 
ing sentence contains an example of the latter case: "I have 
learned that you have removed from your -house, and that 
another family occupies it." 

They then make a compound third class element. 

582. Any Elements of a proposition are co-ordinate, 
when, being connected by a conjunction expressed or implied, 
they have the same relation to some other part ; as, My garden 
produces pears and grapes. I will show you the spot, where he 
was standing, and where he fell. Such are compound elements. 

DIVISION OF SUBOEDINATE PEOPOSITIONS. 

583. Subordinate propositions are divided into substantive, 
adjective, and adverbial propositions. 

584. A Substantive Proposition is one that enters, 
after the manner of a noun, as an element in another proposi- 
tion. 

1. It may be the subject of another proposition ; as, "That 
God exists, is demonstrable. 

2. It may form a predicate with the copula, and thus con- 
stitute a third class predicate, so called because it contains a 
proposition in its base ; as, The universal belief is, that God 
exists. 

3. It may be the direct object of a transitive verb ; as, We 
believe- £/*«£ God exists. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. It may stand as a substantive in apposition to a pronoun 
or noun. It then resembles a noun forming an adjective ele- 
ment ; as, It had been reported that he was wounded. §§ 484, 
485. "His belief, that he would succeed, sustained him." 
§ 585, 3. 

585. An Adjective Proposition is one that forms an 
adjective element in another proposition. § 389. 

1. It is often connected by a relative pronoun to a noun or 
pronoun that it modifies; as, "My horse which I highly valued, 
has died." 

2. It is sometimes thus connected by an adverb; as, "The 
exact time when Homer lived is not known." . 

3. And a substantive proposition often forms an adjective 
element by being in apposition to a noun or pronoun. See last 
section, div. 4. 

586. An Adverbial Proposition is one used as an 
adverbial element in another proposition. § 390. 

It may express time, place, manner, cause, intensity, or assur- 
ance. 

Examples. — "The boat moved off when the clock struck eight." 
"His watch was found where he left it." "He speaks as he 
thinks." "The pear fell off, because it ivas ripe." (Efficient 
cause.) "The thief changed his dress, that he might not be 
known." (Final cause.) "The song of the nightingale is more 
various than that of the thrush." (Intensity.) "As the Lord liveth, 
he shall not be slain." — 1 Sam. 19: 6. (Assurance.) ' 

DIVISION OP COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS. 

587. Compound propositions exhibit four classes of com- 
bination, the copulative, the adversative, the alternative, and the 
causative. 

588. The Copulative Combination is a union of propo- 
sitions with the connection of harmonious thought ; as, 

The sun shines and the air is mild. The day dawned and 
our friends departed. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 171 

The thoughts are harmonious in distinction from being ad- 
versative, alternative or causative. 

This combination is formed by and, or a conjunction of kin- 
dred meaning, expressed or understood. 

589. The Adversative Combination is a union of propo- 
sitions with more or less opposition of meaning ; as, 

"He did not sail to India, but held his course to China." 
"The army was victorious, but the general was slain." There 
is an opposition of one proposition to the statement in the other 
or to some thought suggested by the other. 

This combination is formed by the use of but, or some con- 
junction of kindred meaning. 

590. The Alternative Combination is a union of propo- 
sitions with an offer or denial of a choice between them ; as, 

"We must fight or our liberties are lost." "You can neither 
advance with success nor retreat with safety. " 

Here or, either — or, neither — nor, or an equivalent is employed. 

591. The Causative Combination is a union of propo- 
sitions in which one is a reason for the other, or an inference 
from it ; as, 

"We avoid that man, for he is quarrelsome." "He labors 
not, therefore we say he is lazy. " 

For is the conjunction chiefly used to connect a reason to a 
preceding declaration, and, therefore, is common to connect an 
inference. 

CONNECTIVES. 

592. All words used to connect propositions are called 

connectives. 

In a general sense the copula and prepositions are truly con- 
nectives. But their function is not to connect propositions, and 
they are best explained in connection with the phrases which 
they form. The copula is found in the base of a second class 
predicate, or in certain second class elements growing out of it. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When the copula does sometimes connect a proposition to a 
subject, it is a feature incidental to its proper function in form- 
ing the base of a predicate. 

A preposition always forms a modifying phrase by connecting 
a noun or some substitute for a noun, with another element. 

But the words here classed as connectives are used only or 
prominently to connect propositions. 

593. Under the term Connectives are included Con- 
junctions, Relative Pronouns, and Conjunctive Ad- 
verbs. 

594. Any word which may be used to connect propositions 
without forming an element in either is called a conjunction. 

Such words are, and, but, or, nor, nevertheless, notwithstanding, 
yet, if, though, unless, etc. 

A few conjunctions are used to connect words and phrases 
as well as propositions. [See § 104.] But most conjunctions 
are not, and all other connectives are not. 

595. All compound propositions, and all co-ordi- 
nate elements [§§ 580, 582] are connected by conjunc- 
tions. For which purpose, and, but, or, nor, for, therefore, or 
their equivalents are chiefly used. 

596. Subordinate propositions may be connected to 
their principals by conjunctions, relative pronouns, or 
conjunctive adverbs. 

The Conjunctions used for this purpose are called subordinate 
conjunctions, and differ from those used to connect compound 
propositions. The following are the most common : Because, 
if, though, although, unless, that, provided, notwithstanding, lest, 
whereas, as — as, so — as, so — that. 

Rem.— The word, that, is classed with these conjunctions, for, though it is 
often a demonstrative adjective, an adj. pronoun, or a rel. pronoun, it is also used 
to introduce a subordinate proposition and is then termed a conjunction. 

597. The Relative Pronoun connects a clause in which 
it stands to a principal proposition, while it forms an element 
also in that clause, (cf. §§ 538, 539.) 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR,. 173 

598. An adverb by its nature forms an element in some 
proposition. But some adverbs serve, at the same time, to con- 
nect a subordinate to a principal proposition. Such as -where, 
while, ichen, whither, etc. 

Examples. — "The rocks remain where they fell." "James will 
stay with his parents, while Charles is in the army." "The time 
has come when we should be employed." 

Adverbs thus used are termed conjunctive adverbs. 



Exercise LIIL 

599. Miscellaneous sentences including various classes of propositions. 

1. They chose him to be their secretary. 2. I know not who 
are expected. 3. Ambition makes the same mistake concerning 
power that avarice makes concerning wealth. 4. Carest thou 
not that we perish ? 

Rem.- A 3d cl. ele. of moral cause, suited to awaken a sense of duty. 

5. They say that they have bought the house, and therefore 
they wish to occupy it. 6. "The queen of the south shall rise 
up in the judgment with this generation and shall condemn it ; 
for she. came from the uttermost parts of the earth to hear the 
wisdom of Solomon ; and behold, a greater than Solomon is 
here." 7. "Go, show your slaves how choleric you are, and 
make your bondmen tremble." 8. When a wild animal is 
cornered, he will often turn and fight furiously. 9. " Waking, 
she never wandered in her mind but once, and that was at 
beautiful music which she said was in the air." [Once is here 
used as a noun meaning one time. That is adj. pro., sbj. of 
was; its antecedent is the idea of wandering expressed in the 
preceding proposition.] 10. "Opening her eyes at last from a 
very quiet sleep, she begged that they would kiss her once 
again." 11. Him who committed the offence you should punish, 
not me who am innocent. 12. Where were you this morning, 
when I called? 13, It is these things which I love and venerate 
in England. 14. I did not know whom to send. 15. "That 
you have wronged me doth appear in this, you have condemned 
and noted Lucius Pella, for taking bribes here of the Sardians." 
16. "You wronged yourself to write in such a case." 17. "In 
such a time as this, it is not meet that every nice offence should 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

bear its comment." 18. "I am afraid to think what I have 
done." — Macbeth. 19. "I will not call him villain, because it 
would be unparliamentary." 20. "He maketh me to lie down 
in green pastures : he leadeth me beside the still waters." 21. I 
am astonished to hear such principles confessed. 22. It was 
the act of a coward who raises his arm to strike, but has not 
courage to give the blow. 23. If ye are beasts, then stand here 
like fat oxen, waiting for the butcher's knife. 24. That -which 
befits us embosomed in beauty and wonder, as we are, is cheer- 
fulness, and courage, and the endeavor to realize our aspira- 
tions. 25. It is a good which depends not on the will of others, 
nor on the affluence of external fortune. 26. "Do you not 
remember how I established young Strosser in business some 
ten years ago?" 27. "You know I told you, on the morning I 
called to offer you an equal share of the stock, that it might 
prove better than an investment in the bank." 28. Imperial 
Kome governed the bodies of men, but she did not extend her 
empire farther. 29. The truly great consider first how they 
may gain the approbation of God. 30. "Thou hast delivered 
me from the strivings of the people ; and thou hast made me 
the head of the heathen." — Ps. 18:43. 31. "Freely to give re- 
proof and thankfully to receive it, is an indispensable condition 
of true friendship." 

Rem.— We have here two subjects connected by and and the verb of their pred. 
in the sing., and correctly, because the assertion is not made of each separately, 
but of the union of the two as expressing one state that is indispensable to true 
friendship. . 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

600. The Subjunctive Mode includes those forms of 
the verb which are regularly found only in conditional and 
hypothetical propositions. 

The subjunctive forms are produced, 

1. In part, by the omission of personal endings. 

2. In part by reversing the order of verb and subject, and 

3. They embrace some peculiar forms of the verb to be. 

601. The verb to have, in the 2d and 3d pers. sing, of the 
pres. tense, has subjunctive forms as follows : If thou have, If 
he have ; where the indicative forms are, If thou hast, If he has. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 175 

And any verb, except the verb to be, may make subjunctive 
forms in the same persons of the present tense, by omitting the 
personal endings. 

602. Eeversed forms which are subjunctive, occur in the 
past tense of the verb to have, in all persons and both numbers ; 
and by help of the auxiliary, had, in the past perfect tense of 
all verbs. 

603. Also the usual potential forms of the past and past 
perfect tenses, when reversed without interrogation, become sub- 
junctive, and may be called the potential subjunctive. 



CONJUGATION OF SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS. 

604. Subjunctive mode of the verb TO HAVE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st Vers. (Wanting.) 

2d Vers. If thou have, tHere are no peeullar forms for condi _ 

3d Vers. It ne nave. tionai propositions.) 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Pers. Had I, 1st Pers. Had we, 

2d Pers. Hadst thou, 2d Pers. Had ye or you, 

3d Pers. Had he. ■ 3d Pers. Had they. 

Rem.- The subjunctive reversed forms are the same as those employed in inter- 
rogation, but when used subjunctively they are easily distinguished from the 
interrogative use, by the absence of the interrogation point in written language, 
and by the falling instead of the rising inflection in oral. 

605. The Subjunctive Mode as it may be found in 
the Common Form of any verb except TO BE. 

First, by omitting the personal ending in the present tense , 
second, by reversing the order in the location of the auxiliary, 
had, in the past perfect tense. 

606. Subjunctive Mode of the verb to call, which other 
verbs may exhibit in the same manner. 



176 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1st Pers. 
2d Pers. 
3d Pers. 



Singular. 

(Wanting.) 

If thou call, 
If he call. 



Present Tense. 



Plural. 



(Here are no peculiar forms for condi- 
tional propositions.) 



Past Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1st Pers. Had I called, 1st Pers. 

2d Pers. Hadst thou called, 2d Pers. 

3d Pers. Had he called. 3d Pers. 



Plural. 

Had we called, 
Had ye or you called, 
Had they called. 



607. Subjunctive Mode of the verb TO BE, 
and of the Progressive and Passive Forms of 
other verbs. 

All other verbs follow the example of the verb to call. 



Verb To be. 

Present Tense, 



Sing. 



Plu. 



1st Pers. 
2d Pers. 
3d Pers. 
1st Pers. 
2d Pers. 
3d Pers. 



If I be 

If thou be 

If he be 

If we be 

If ye or you be 

If they be 



Past Tense. 

Sing. 1st Pers. If I were 

2d Pers. If thou wert or were 
3d Pers. If he were 

Plural. Any peculiar forms for conditional propositions are wanting in this 
plural. 

608. Reversed Forms prevail in both numbers of the 
Past and Past Perfect tenses as follows. 



Progressive 
Foi m. 

Made with the 
verb to be and a 
pres. participle 

calling, 



Passive 

Form. 

Made with the 
verb to be and a 
per. participle. 

called. 



Sing. 



Plu. 





Past Tense 




1st Pers. 


Were I 




calling, 


2d Pers. 


Wert thou 




'•' 


3d Pers. 


Were he 




(< 


1st Pers. 


Were we 




a 


2d Pers. 


Were ye or 


you 


t( 


3d Pers. 


Were they 




K 



called. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



177 



Past Perfect Tense. 

Sing. 1st Pers. Had I been calling, called. 

2d Pers. Hadst thou been 

3d Pers. Had he been 

Plu. 1st Pers. Had we been 

2d Pers. Had ye or you been 

3d Pers. Had they been 

Rem. L— The subjunctive present of the verb to be is sometimes found reversed 
to express condition without a conjunction; as, "Be it indeed that I have erred_ 
mine error remaineth with myself."— Job, 19:4. 

Rem. 2.— The past tense of the Emphatic Form of many verbs may be used 
reversed, to express condition without a conjunction; as, "Did he know it, he 
might make a better investment." 

609. Potential Subjunctive. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st Pers. Could I call, 1st Pers. Could we call, 

2d Pers. Couldst thou call, 2d Pers. Could ye or you call, 

3d Pers. Could he call. 3d Pers. Could they call. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st Pers. Could I have called, 1st Pers. Could we have called, 
2d Pers. Couldst thou have 2d Pers. Could ye or you have 

called, called, 

3d Pers. Gould he have called. 3d Pers. Could they have called 

Observations on the Subjunctive Mode. 

610. The subjunctive forms, when not reversed, are usually 
preceded by a conjunction ; such as, if, though, unless, except, 
whether, that, or lest, introducing a condition or supposition, in 
a subordinate clause. 

611. The reversed forms express a condition or supposition 
without a conjunction; as, "Should he arrive, we shall be de- 
lighted." 

Tenses of the Subjunctive Mode in regard to Time. 

612. The subjunctive mode is seldom found in any other 
tenses than the present, past, and past perfect. And in express- 
ing time these tenses differ greatly from the corresponding tenses 

—12 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of the indicative. Their reference to time is sometimes indefi- 
nite, but commonly as follows : 

1. The present tense expresses future time; as, "If he escape, 
Heaven forgive him, too." — Shah. 

'2. The past tense expresses present time; as, "Had I the 
wings of a dove, how soon would I taste you again." — Cowper. 

3. The jmst perfect tense expresses indefinite past time; as, 
"Had I been in his place, I would have acted otherwise." — 
Gibbs. 

613. Founded on the difference between the subjunctive 
and indicative tenses in expressing time, is a principle which 
often controls their use. When we are in doubt of a present 
fact, we use the indicative after if, and when in doubt of a 
future occurrence, the subjunctive. 

For example. — Sitting in my house, I am ignorant whether it 
is raining without or not, and I say, "If it rains, I must take 
my umbrella." But contemplating a walk to-morrow, I say, 
"If it rain, I will take my umbrella," using the subjunctive. 

614. The pupil is not to suppose that all the forms of the 
verb which follow the conditional conjunctions, are in the sub- 
junctive mode, although in many grammars they have been so 
regarded. It is better to consider only such forms as have been 
described above, which are peculiar to conditional and hypo- 
thetical clauses, as constituting the subjunctive mode. 

Indicative forms, however, in present usage, are often preceded 
by conditional conjunctions. 

CLASSIFICATION OP SENTENCES. 

615. A sentence is either a single proposition or such a 
union of propositions as must be taken together to express the 
complete thought of the speaker. 

616. Sentences in their composition are simple, complex, 
or compound. 

617. A Simple sentence is a simple, independent propo- 
sition making complete sense by itself ; that is, expressing by 
itself a complete thought of the speaker. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 179 

A simple sentence is always a simple proposition ; but a sim- 
ple proposition does not always form a complete sentence. It 
may be part of a complex or compound sentence. 

618. A Complex sentence is a complex proposition mak- 
ing complete sense by itself. 

A complex sentence is always a complex proposition, but a 
single complex proposition is not always a sentence. It may be 
a member of a compound sentence, and sometimes a clause in 
a more extended complex sentence. 

619. A Compound sentence consists of two or more 
independent propositions, so related in thought that they cannot 
be separated without impairing the sense. 

620. Obs.— The terms proposition and sentence are not always well distin- 
guished by writers on language, and are sometimes used interchangeably. But a 
proposition as it has been defined (§ 371). and as understood by grammarians, will 
often constitute but part of a sentence. 

621. Sentences in their import are assertive, interrogative, 
imperative, exclamatory , or mixed. 

622. An Assertive sentence is one that declares some- 
thing as a reality; as, "God created the world." "He has 
appointed a day of judgment," 

623. An Interrogative sentence is made by an inde- 
pendent proposition in the form of a question ; as, Will your 
uncle arrive to-day? Have the family who lived near you and 
whom you esteemed so much, left the city? 

Compare definition of independent propositions, §575. 

624. An Imperative sentence is made by an independ- 
ent proposition in the form of command ; as, Children, obey 
your parents. If you desire friends, show yourselves friendly. 

But this form is often used to convey exhortation or entreaty ; 
as, Do extricate my friend, if you can. "Arise, 0, Lord; save 
me, 0, my God."— Ps. 3:7. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

625. An Exclamatory sentence has a form peculiar to 

exclamation; as, "How are the mighty fallen! — 2 Sam. 1:19. 

What heroes were reared in ancient Sparta ! "0, that they 

were wise !" 

Sentences which have the form only of assertion or question 
ma^be so uttered as to become exclamatory, rhetorically. But 
they are not so grammatically. Of this class are the following ; 
''The foe has come !" "Was it not strange?" 

626. A Mixed sentence partakes of the character of 
two or more of the other classes. 

It* is a compound sentence in which one of the independent 
propositions is different in character from another; as, Give 
me my price, and you shall have the horse. They were in the 
city, and why did they not remain? "How great are his signs ! 
and how mighty are his wonders ! his kingdom is an everlasting 
kingdom, and his dominion is from generation to generation." 
—Dan. 4:3. 



Exercise LIV. 

627. Miscellaneous sentences including some with the sujunctive mode. 

1. "Clouds and darkness are round about him ; righteousness 
and judgment are the habitation of his throne." 2. "The sit- 
uation is not suited to his taste, the compensation, moreover, is 
meager." 3. "A hero, on the day of battle, has lost a meal, 
and shall we, therefore, pity him ? 4. If any one call, tell him 
I am not at home. 5. They have indeed honored him with 
their praise ; but they have disgraced him with their pity. 
6. "You s4iall digest the venom of your spleen, though it do 
split you." 7. The majority were disposed to adopt the meas- 
ure which they at first opposed. 8. The administration of 
Washington and the establishment of the government formed 
an important era in our history. 9. "I should feel ashamed of 
an enthusiasm for Italy and Greece, did I not feel it for a land 
like England." 10. Whom does he honor more than me. 11. 
"If that friend demand, why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is 
my answer : not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome 
more. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 181 

Rem.— The clause "why, etc.," is termed an indirect question, that is. a question 
stated in substance, but not in the words of one asking it. 

12. "Had he not resembled rny father as he slept, I had done 
it." — Macbeth. 

13. "Were- he my son, 
He would not shed a tear. He would remember 
The cliff, where he was bred, and learned to scan 
A thousand fathoms' depth of nether air." 

14. Though he was a young man, he presided over the assem- 
bly with much dignity. 15. "It is not we who are in fault." 
16. "Let each scholar who thinks so raise his hand." 17. 
"Who dainties love shall beggars prove." — Franklin. 

18. "Had I but served my God, with half the zeal 

I served my king, he would not in mine age 
Have left me naked to mine enemies." — Shah. . 

19. "Yet, though destruction sweep these lovely plains, 

Eise, fellow-men; our country yet remains." 

Campbell. 

20. Unless rain come, we shall be sure to go. 21. The two 
'boys were so angry, they would not speak to each other. 22. We 
never denied that he-was opposed to the law. 23. "That life 
is long which answers life's great end." 24. The committee, 
who were divided in opinion, will discuss the question more 
fully at their next meeting. 25. "Beware, lest that come upon 
you which is spoken of in the prophets." 26. "Behold, ye de- 
spisers, and wonder, and perish; for I work a work in your 
days, a work which ye shall in no wise believe, though a man 
declare it unto you." — Acts, 13:40, 41. 27. "Had ye believed 
Moses, ye would have believed me." — John, 5:46. 28. "His 
' Eemedy for Dueling,' had he published nothing else, is enough 
to preserve his name to posterity." 29. The Indians, before 
they declare war, hold a solemn council. 30. "Though thou 
detain me, I will not eat of thy bread." — Judges 13:16. 3.1. 
"If it were your Harry, mother, or your Willie, that was going 
to be torn from you by a brutal trader, how fast could you 
walk?— Mrs. II. B. Stowe. 

628. After long and carefut practice on the graded exercises of this book, 
the learner will do well to continue a like practice extensively on passages of good 
authors in different styles. Only a few selections are here added. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SELECTIONS 



The Inquiry. 

629. I. 

"Tell me, ye winged winds, that round my pathway roar, 
Do ye not know some spot where mortals weep no more? 
Some lone and pleasant dell, some valley in the west, 
Where, free from toil and pain, the weary soul may rest?. 
The loud wind dwindled to a whisper low, 
And sighed for pity, as it answered — "No" 

II. 

"Tell me, thou mighty deep, whose billows round me play, 
Know'st thou some favored spot, some island far away, 
Where weary man may find the bliss for which he sighs — 
Where sorrow never lives, and friendship never dies ? 
The loud waves rolling in perpetual flow, 
Stopped for awhile, and sighed to answer — "No" 

III. 

"And thou, serenest moon, that, with such lovely face, 
Do'st look upon the earth asleep in night's embrace, 
Tell me, in all thy round, hast thou not seen some spot, 
Where miserable man might find a happier lot ? 
Behind a cloud the moon withdrew in woe, 
And a voice, sweet but sad, responded — "No." 

IV. 

"Tell me, my secret soul, 0, tell me, Hope and Faith, 
Is there no resting-place from sorrow, sin and death? 
Is there no happy spot where mortals may be blessed, 
Where grief may find a balm, and weariness a rest? 
Faith, Hope, and Love, best boons to mortals given, 
Waved their bright wings, and whispered — "Yes, in Heaven. 

Charles Mackay. 



english grammar. 183 

Washington's Address to Congress on Eesigning His Military 
Commission, at the Close op the Revolutionary War. 

630. 1. "The great events on which my resignation de- 
pended having at length taken place, I have now the honor of 
offering my sincere congratulations to Congress, and of present- 
ing myself before them, to surrender into their hands the trust 
committed to me, and to claim the indulgence of retiring from 
the service of my country. 

2. "Happy in the confirmation of our independence and 
sovereignty, and pleased with the opportunity afforded the 
United States of becoming a respectable nation, I resign with 
satisfaction the appointment I accepted with diffidence ; a diffi- 
dence in my abilities to accomplish so arduous a task, which, 
however, was superseded by a confidence in the rectitude of our 
cause, the support of the supreme power of the Union, and the 
patronage of Heaven. 

3. "The successful termination of the war has verified the 
most sanguine expectations ; and my gratitude for the interposi- 
tion of Providence, and for the assistance I have received from my 
countiwmen, increases with every review of the momentous contest. 

4. "While I repeat my obligation to the army in general, I 
should do injustice to my own feelings not to acknowledge in 
this place the peculiar services and distinguished merits of the 
persons who have been attached to my person during the war. 
It was impossible that the choice of confidential officers to 
compose my family should have been more fortunate. Permit 
me, sir, to recommend in particular those who have continued 
in the service to the present moment, as worthy of the favorable 
notice and patronage of Congress. 

5. "I consider it as an indispensable duty to close this last 
solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of 
our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and 
those who have the superintendence of them to his holy keeping. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. "Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from 
the great theatre of action ; and, bidding an affectionate fare- 
well to this august body, under whose orders I have long acted, 
I here offer my commission, -and take my leave of all the em- 
ployments of public life." 



Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg. 

631. 1. "Fourscore and seven years ago, our- fathers 
brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in 
liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are cre- 
ated free and equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, 
testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so 
dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle- 
field of that war. We are met to dedicate a portion of it, as 
the final resting place of those who have given their lives that 
that nation might live. 

2. "It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. 
But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, 
we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men living and dead, 
who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to 
add or to detract. The world will very little note, and not long 
remember, what we say here ; but it can never forget what they 
did here. 

3. "It is for us, the living, rather to he dedicated here to 
the unfinished work that they have thus far so nobly carried on. 
It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remain- 
ing before us ; that from these honored dead we take increased 
devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure 
of devotion ; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall 
not have died in vain ; that the nation shall, under God, have 
a new birth of freedom ; and that government of the people, by 
the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 185 

A FEW HINTS CONCERNING PUNCTUATION. 



632 a 1. It is a good principle to construct sentences so as 
to make them easily understood with little punctuation. 

2. We should not attempt to indicate by points all the pauses 
to be made in reading. 

3. Use points in such a manner as to enable the reader to 
perceive at a glance the relation of the several parts of a sen- 
tence and its completion. 

4. Coordinate elements, if more than two in number, or if 
the conjunction, and, is omitted, should be separated by a comma. 

5. Different propositions in a sentence, unless very closely 
connected in relation of thought, should be separated by a 
comma, and if loosely related, by a semicolon. 

6. Elements out of their natural order should be separated 
from other parts by a comma, or commas. 

7. A noun in apposition should commonly be separated by 
commas. And also a term of address. And an interjection 
should be followed by a comma or exclamation point. 

8. An adjective or adjective element restrictive should not 
be separated from the term it modifies ; but an adjective element 
merely explanatory should be separated. 

9. An adverb or adverbial phrase expressing order, sequence, 
and the like, should be set off by itself. 

10. Adverbs that modify the declaration rather than any 
particular element (except the adverb not) should generally be 
separated from other parts by commas. 

11. When a verb is omitted and left to be understood by the 
connection, its place should be occupied hj a comma. 

12. When a noun and participle united make an adverbial 
element, they should be separated from other parts by a comma 
or commas. 

13. A question asked, or quoted in the same form in which 
it would be asked, must be followed by an interrogation point ; 
but if quoted indirectly it should not be. 

14. But no general rules of punctuation can apply specific- 
ally in all the innumerable forms of structure. Two persons 
will seldom apply the same rules alike. It is necessary with the 
best rules to exercise good judgment and correct taste. And 
these faculties the scholar should cultivate by carefully observ- 
ing the practice of the best authors. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PARSING AND ANALYZING-. 



633. A scheme of parsing and analyzing by writing is here 
given, to be used with a class in any stage of progress to the 
extent to which the properties and relations of words have been 
learned. 

Models for beginners (§ 661) suggest the manner in which it 
may be employed with those who have learned only a few prop- 
erties of words. 

The scheme is explained with particular reference to its use 
in full on paper. It is equally fitted for use on the blackboard. 
And the same description of properties and relations may be 
practiced orally. 

634. Parsing is indicating the Parts of Speech and the 
properties of words as Parts of Speech. 

635. Analysis is resolving a sentence into its elements, 
and indicating their relation to each other. 

636. Both parsing and analysis are necessary to give a 
complete description of a sentence. But we need not state the 
same things in parsing which we state in analysis. 

637. When a noun stands as the subject of a verb, it is so 
specified in analyzing, and we have no need to say of the same 
noun in parsing that it is "nominative case to that verb." For 
if it is called nominative case, it is only because it is subject, 
and the application of the term nominative case gives no addi- 
tional information. And when we say that a noun is the direct 
object of a certain verb, we add nothing by saying that it is in 
the objective case and governed by that verb. 

638. But in parsing pronouns in these relations, there is 
propriety in stating their case, since case with pronouns means 
form, and we wish to know whether their form and specified 
construction correspond. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 187 

HOW TO PREPARE PAPER AND WRITE EXERCISES. 

639. For writing exercises in parsing and analysis, take 
cap paper with common ruling. Stitch together a number of 
sheets, say half a quire, with no other folding than they have 
in the ream. Keep the same in a loose cover of pasteboard or 
other material according to fancy, which may serve for another 
supply when these sheets are filled. Open so as to use the sec- 
ond and third pages together. Divide each page by perpendic- 
ular lines with pencil or red ink into spaces as follows :- begin- 
ning on the left hand, after leaving a suitable margin, give a 
space half an inch wide, next three spaces each two inches, 
then a small space on each side of the stitching followed by three 
two-inch spaces on the right-hand page, and a margin sufficient 
for any references desired. Prepare successive pages in the 
same manner according to need.* 

640. In writing a sentence to be described, commence on 
the upper horizontal line in the first 2-inch perpendicular space, 
writing on the same line across both pages, only one word in 
each space, except that an ■ inseparable phrase, as, to love, in 
vain, etc., is accounted as one word. But an auxiliary verb, 
being often separated from its principal, must have its own 
space. 

When one line is filled, commence and proceed in the same 
manner in the third line from it below, leaving two lines and 
the left hand perpendicular space, for writing the description in 
abbreviations. Only when, with beginners, a partial description 
is intended, one line for abbreviations is sufficient. See models 
for beginners, § 661. Every sentence should commence in the 
first left-hand two-inch space, 

641. Number each word in its order in the sentence, by a 
figure placed after it ; and each sentence by a number in the 
left-hand narrow space, opposite its beginning. In this narow 
space is the proper place to give, with its number, the composi- 

*Note.— If the entire ruling: of the paper were to be done expressly for this 
exercise, as its importance would justify, the perpendicular lines should be in red 
ink, and the horizontal spaces of different width, as follows: Of every three suc- 
cessive spaces, the first should be a medium space, say 4-10 of an inch, the second 
3-10, and the third 5-10, thus bringing the lines for abbreviation, which should be 
written in a fine hand, nearer together, and giving a wider space between those and 
the next line of the sentence, the more readily to catch the eye in examining the 
work. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tion and classified import of a sentence. But this may be 
omitted till these properties are explained, in § 615. The 
learner should number his sentences from his beginning to 
write exercises. 

642. 1. Parse each word by abbreviations in its own 
space on the line next below, as seen in the models, placing the 
abbreviations for properties in the order in which they occur in 
the synopsis, taking no account in this line of the relations of 
words, as subject, predicate or modifiers. 

2. On the second line below each word, in its own space, 
describe it in like manner as an element. After the first ab- 
breviation denoting the character of an element, as S., P., ob., 
a. or ad.,' etc., write the figure that is the number of the word 
to which it stands related; as, after S., which denotes subject, 
write the number of the base of the predicate ; and after P., 
denoting predicate, write the number of the base of the subject ; 
and after ob., a. or ad., write the number of the word which 
that element modifies. And after the figure thus denoting its 
relation, complete the description of the element. 

After long practice in parsing, analysis may be pursued by 
itself, omitting the most obvious and oft-recurring elements. 

643. A systematic order in describing a sentence, 
whether orally or in writing, especially in giving the properties 
of a part of speech or an element, has many advantages. 

The order pursued in the models is as good as any, and if it 
is uniformly followed, the teacher and pupil will understand 
each other with greater ease. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



189 



SYNOPSIS OF PARTS OF SPEECH AND ELEMENTS, 



A Guide in Pausing and Analyzing, with Abbreviations fob Parsing and 
Analyzing by Writing, whether on Paper, Black- 
board or Slate. 



644. All abbreviations should be written in small letters, except that, S. for 
subject, and P. for predicate, should be made in imitation of printed capitals. 

These abbreviations are readily understood in their proper place and order, 
but are not adapted to general use. 



645. Inquire first what 
part of speech a word is. 

If a noun mark 

What class? 

Abstract 

Proper , 

Patrial.. 

Material .. 

Collective 

*Common concrete ..... 

What gender? 

Masculine 

Feminine 

Neuter 

Common 

What number? 

Singular 

Plural 

What form? 

Usual (us.) not marked 
Possessive 

tPerson of nouns not 
marked. 

646. 

If an adjective 

What class? 

Descriptive (des.)— 

Common 

Proper 



abs. 

pr. 
ptr. 
mtr. 
col. 

cc. 



Pi. 



cm. or c. 
pr. 



Definitive (def )— 
Indefinite article .. 

Definite article 

Demonstrative 

Distributive 

Numeral (num.)— 

Cardinal 

Ordinal 

Multiplicative 

Degree of comparison 
(if admitting any) 

Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

647. 

If a pronoun 

What class? 

Personal 

Rebrtive 

Interrogative 

Adjective 

Reciprocal 

What gender? 

Masculine 

Feminine 

Neuter 

Common 

tWhat person? 

First 

Second 

Third 



ia. 
da. 

dm. 
dis. 



car. 

Old. 

mlr. 



pos. 
cm p. 
sup. 



pro. 



per. or pr. 

rel. or rl. 

nfr. 

a. 

rep. 



*A11 nouns not abstract are concrete, and all not proper are common; all that 
belong to neither of the classes in the list above should be marked, cc. 

tA noun is always 3d pers. excent when term of address or in apposition with a 
pronoun of 1st or 2d pers., and need not be marked. 

tThe person and number of pronouns, may be written together thus. Is. 2s. 3s.. 
lpl. 2pl. 3pl., also of verbs. 



190 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Synopsis. — Continued. 



If a pronoun.— Continued. 
*What number? 


s. 
Pl. 

nm. or n. 

pos. or ps. 
ob. or o. 

i v. 
aux. 

r. 
ir. 

tr. 
i. 

cm. or c. 

em. or e. 
pgr. or pg. 
pas. or ps. 

nd. 

tnd. 

ntr. 
tntr. 
imp. 

sub. 
tsub. 

prs. 

pst. 

fut. 
prsp. 
pstp. 
futp. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

s. 
Pl. 

ad. 

tm. 
p.c. 
mr. 

ca. 

in. 

sr. 


Degree of comparison? 
(if admitting any) 
Positive 


pos. 


Singular „ 




Plural 


Superlative 


sup. 


What case? 

Nominative 


650. 

If a preposition 


Possessive 


prep. 


Objective 


If a con j unction 


648. 

If a finite verb, mark the 
Principal verb 


con. 


I 

What class? 

Coordinate (coor)— 
Copulative 




An auxiliary 






cpl. 


What conjugation? 


Adversative 


advr. 


Regular 




alt r. 


Irregular : 


Causative 


cau. 


What class? 


Subordinate 


sbr. 


Transitive 


Corelatives mark the first 
! If an interjection 




Intransitive 




What Gen. Form? 


ntrj. 


Common 


651. 

If aparticiple 




Emphatic 

Progressive 

Passive 


p. 


What mode? 

Pure indicative 

Potential indicative ... 


What kind? 

Present 

Perfect 


prs. 

per. 


Pure interrogative 


Preperfect 


pper. 


Potential interrogative 
Imperative 


From what verb? 

Reg. transitive 

Reg. intransitive 

Irreg. transitive 

Irreg. intransitive 

What Gen. Form? 

Common 


Subjunctive 


r.t. 


Potential subjunctive. 

What tense? 

Present 


r.i. 
ir.t. 
ir.i. 


Past 




Future 


cm. or c. 


Present perfect. 

Past perfect 


Progressive 

Passive 


pgr. orpg. 


Future perfect 


Second class ._ 


2cl. 


What person? 

First 


652. 

If an infinitive 




Second 


inf. or nf. 


Third 


What kind? 

Present 




What number? 


prs. 




Perfect 


per. 


Plural 


From what verb? 

Reg. transitive . . ; 

Reg. intransitive 

Irreg. transitive 

Irreg. intransitive 

What Gen. Form? 

Common 




649. 

If an adverb 


r.t. 
r.i. 


What class? 

Time 


ir.t. 
ir.i. 


Place 






cm. or c. 




Progressive 


pgr. or pg 




Passive 


pas. or.ps. 


Assurance 


Second Class 


2cl. 







The person and number of pronouns, may be written together thus, Is. 2s. 3s. 
lpl. 2pl. 3pl„ also of verbs. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Synopsis. — Continued. 



191 



653. 

If a gerund. 



What kind? 

Present 

Preperfect . 



From what verb? 

Reg. transitive 

Reg. intransitive ., 
Irreg. transitive ... 
Irreg. intransitive 

What Gen. Form? 

Common 

Progressive 

Passive , 

Second class 



654. 

In analyzing a proposition 

What composition? 

Simple 

Complex 

Compound 



What character? 

Assertive 

Interrogative 
Imperative ... 
Exclamatory. 
Mixed 



655. 

In each proposition, mark— 

The predicate under its 
base 

The subject underits base 



656. 

Adjective element ... 

Adverbial element .. 

Of time 

Of place 

Of manner ..'1 

Of cause 

Of intensity.. 
Of assurance. 



ger. or gr. 



prs. 
pper. 



r.t. 

r.i. 
ir.t. 
ir.i. 



cm. or c. 

pgr. or pg. 

pas or ps. 

2cl. 



sm. 
cpx. 
cpd. 



ass. 
ntr. 
imp. 
xcl. 
mx. 



a. 

ad. 
tm. 
pic. 
mr. 
ca. 
in. 
sr. 



657. 

An objective element 



Direct 

Indirect 

Attributive 



658. 

Regarding" every element: 

*Its class- 
First 

Second 

Third 

*Its composition- 
Simple 

Complex 

Compound .. 

659. 

An appositive mark 

A term of address 

The np. element under noun 
with no. of participle 

Under participle with no. of 
word this element modifies 

Under pronoun with no. of 
antecedent 

If antec. is in another sent'ce 

If antec. is not given 

When desired sb. may denote 
the subject of an inf. or par- 
ticiple, ntr. an interrogative 
adj. or. adv., cntv. a connect- 
ive, nsp. an inseparable 
phrase, and fig- personifica- 
tion. 



ob. or o. 

di. 

ndi. 

att. 



sm. 
cpx. 
cpd. 



ap. 

tdr. 

np. 

np. 

nt. 
ntp. 
ntn. 



*The class and composition may be written together, thus, Ism., lcpx., 2cpx. 

660. Obs.— Like abbreviations stand for different things in different descrip- 
tions; but their connection will make known their meaning, in each case. Com- 
monly no abbreviations are needed except those in the right-hand column; but 
def. must sometimes be used for definitive adjective, since many of these do not 
come under any of the sub-classes. 



192 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



MODELS FOR BEGINNERS. 



681. These models of partial analysis suggest a mode of 
describing words and their relations in writing that may be 
practiced with beginners as soon as they have learned to dis- 
tinguish the leading parts of speech and their simplest prop- 
erties. As they advance, their practice may extend to more 
and more particulars, until they learn to describe all the 
elements of a sentence. The relation of words in these models 
is denoted by figures on the same line with the parsing. The 
last figure in the description of a word is the number of that 



1 


The 1. 

da. 3. 


faithful 2. 

a. cm. pos. 3. 


messenger 3. 

n. cc. m. s. S.4. 


2 


Some 1. 

a. def. 2. 


birds 2. 
n. ec. c. pi. S.3. 


destroy 3. 

v. tr. prs. P. 2. 


3 


Farmers 1. 

n. ec. m. pi. S.2. 


plant 2. 

v. tr. prs. P.l. 


large 3. 

a. cm. pos. 4. 


4 


Drunkards' 1. 

n. cc. c. pi. pos. 2. 


eyes 2. 

n. cc. n. pi. S.4. 


often 3. 

ad. tm. 4. 


5 


Some 1. 

a. <fef. 3. 


wise 2. 

a. cm. pos. 3. 


men 3. 

n. ec. m. pi. S.4. 


6 


The 1. 

da. 3. 


great 2. 

a. cm. pos. 3. 


ships 3. 
n. cc. n.pl. S.7. 




carry 7. 

v. tr. prs. P.3. 


many 8. 

a. def. 9. 


passengers 9. 

n. cc. c. pi. 7. 


7 


Henry 1. 

n. pr. m. s. 8,6. 


is 2. 

v. i. prs. cop. 6. 


a 3. 

la 6. 


8 


Merino 1. 

a. cm. 2. 


sheep 2. 

n. cc. c. pi. S.3. 


furnish 3. 

v. r.t. nd. prs. P.2. 


9 


He 1. 

pro. pr. m. 3s. S. 5. 


is 2. 

v. ir.i. prs. cop. 5. 


an 3. 

ia. 5. 


10 


I 1. 

pro. pr. c. Is. S.2. 


admire 2. 

v. tr. prs. P.l. 


Susan . 3. 

n. pr. f. s. 2. 


11 


Young 1. 

a. cm. pos. 2. 


lions 2. 

n. cc. c. pi. S.3. 


roar 3. 

v. r.i. nd. prs. P.2. 


12 


After 1. 

prep. 4. 

cheered 7. 

v. r.t. nd. pst. P. 6. 


the 2. 

da. 4. 

us 8. 

pro. pr. c. lpl. o. 7. • 


long 3. 
a. cm. pos. 4. 

with 9. 

prep. 12. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



193 



MODELS FOR BEGINNERS— Continued. 



word to which it stands related as subject, predicate or modi- 
fier; only after a preposition it is the number of its object. 
The practice may be on the blackboard with advantage. If the 
teacher will make himself familiar with the complete system, 
he can easily teach his pupils to practice it in accordance with 
their advancement. 



The abbreviations S. and P. for subject and predicate should, in writing, imitate 
printed capitals; all others small writing letters. 



returned 4. 

v. i. pst. P. 3. 


in 5. 

prep. 6. 


safety. 6. 

n. abs. n. s. 4. 


many 4. 

a. def. 6. 


hurtful 5. 

a. c. pos. 6. 


insects. 6. 

n. cc. n. pi. 3. 


fields 4. 

n. cc. n. pi. 2. 


of 5. 

prep. 6. 


corn. 6. 

n. mtr. n. s. 4. 


betray 4. 

v. tr. prs. P.2. 


bad 5. 

a. cm. pos. 6. 


habits. 6. 

n. abs. n. pi. 4. 


inhabit 4. 

v. tr. prs. P. 3. 


poor 5. 
a. cm. pos. 6. 


houses. 6. 
n. cc. n. pi. 4. 


of 4. 

prep. 6. 

and 10. 

con. 9-12. 


the 5. 

da. (J. 

much 11. 

a. def. 12. 


ocean 6. 

n. cc. n. s. 3. 

cargo. 12. 

n. cc. n. s. 7. 


good, 4. 

a. cm. pos. 6. 


faithful 5. 

a. cm. pos. 6. 


boy. 6. 

n. cc. m. s. P.l. 


very 4. 

ad. in. 5. 


fine 5. 

a. cm. pos. 6. 


wool. 6. 
n. mtr. n. s. 3. 


industrious 4. 

a. cm. pos. 5. 


pupil. 5. 
n. cc. m. s. P. 1. 




She 4. 

pro. pr. f. 3s. S. 5. 


studies 5. 

v. r.i. P.4. 


well. 6. 

ad. mr. 5. 


after 4. 

prep. 6. 


their 5. 

pro. pr. c. 3pl. pos. 6. 


prey. 6. 

n. cc. n. s. 3. 


winter 4. 

n. abs. n. s. 7. 

their 10. 

pro. pr. n. 3pl. ps. 12. 


pleasant 5. 

a. cm. pos. 6. 

smiling 11. 
a. cm. pos. 12. 


flowers. 6. 

n.cc. n. pi. S.7. 

faces. 12. 

n. cc. n. pi. 7. 



-13 



194 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



MODELS OF PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 



For Study and Beference. 



662. These models include full parsing and complete analy- 
sis, so far as space allotted to type allows. 

Writing the description of sentences is the best and quickest 
way for the learner to acquire precision, independence, and 
facility in parsing and analyzing. It raises questions of accu- 
racy, which rapid oral analysis would pass unheeded, and fixes 
the various forms of construction much more firmly in the 
mind. It gives the ability to record at any time one's view of 
a sentence, either for his own subsequent inspection, or for the 
instruction of others. The learner should carefully examine 
these models as a guide in describing sentences. They will 



1 


Mr. 1. 


Smith 2. 


the 3. 


sm. 


a. def. 


n. pr. m. s. 


da. 


ass. 


a. 2. Ism. 


S.5. lcpx. 


a. 4. Ism. 




neighbor's 7. 


house 8. 


white 9. 




n. eo. m. s. pos. 


n. cc. n. s. 


a. cm. pos. 




a. 8. lcpx. 


ob. 5. di. lcpx. 


ob. 5. att. Ism. 


2 


My 1. 


esteemed 2. 


uncle 3. 


sm. 


pro. pr. c. Is. pos. 


p.per. r,t. cm. 


n. cc. m. s. 


ass. 


a. 3. Ism. 


a. 3. Ism. 


S.4. lcpx. 




very 7. 


valuable 8. 


book, 9 




ad. in. 


a. cm. pos. 


n. cc. n. s. 




ad. 8. in. Ism. 


a. 9. lcpx. 


ob. 4. di. lcpx. 


3 


Have 1. 


your 2. 


father's 3. 


sm. 


aux. 5. 


pro. pr. c.2pl. pos. 


n. cc. m. s. pos. 


ntr. 




a. 3. Ism. 


a. 4. lcpx. 


4 


In 1. 


what 2. 


enterprise 3. 


sm. 


prep. 


a. ntr. 


n. abs. n. s. 


ntr. 


3. 


a. 3. Ism. 


ad. 6. 2cpx. 


5 


How 1. 


large 2. 


elephants 3. 


sm. 


ad. in. ntr. 


a. cm. pos. 


n. cc. c. pi. 


ntr. 


ad. 2. Ism. 


a. 3. lcpx. 


ob. 6. di. lcpx. 


6 

sm. 


in 7. 

prep. 
9. 


the 8. 

da. 
a. 9. Ism. 


menagerie 9. 

n. col. n. s. 
ad. 6. pic. 2cpx. 


What 1. 


friend 2. 


did 3. 


ntr. 


a. d' j f. ntr. 


n. cc. c. s. 


aux. 5. 




a. 2. Ism. 


ob. 5. di. lcpx. 






on 7. 


your 8. 


arrival 9. 




prep. 


pro. pr. c. 2pl. pos. 


n. abs. n. s. 




9. 


a. 9. Ism. 


ad. 5. tm. 2cpx. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



195 



MODELS OF PARSING AND ANALYSIS, 



For Parsing and Keference. — Con. 



show him how a variety of differently constructed sentences 
should be analyzed. 

Note.— Ia printed models, for want of space to insert sufficient type, the shorter 
abbreviations are used where the longer would be preferable in writing: o. for ob., 
pr, for per. or pro., ps. for pos. or pas., nf. for inf., c. for cm., sometimes x for cpx.. 
all which are readily understood in their connection. The mark for common form 
of verbs is sometimes wholly omitted, and that for person and number more often, 
v. sometimes, other marks showing what the word is. The pupil knows that the 
verb is of the same number and person as its subject, and if the subject is a noun 
it is always 3d person. In complex sentences, oft recurring features are sometimes 
omitted to give place to those less common. But in writing exercises, with the 
ruling recommended, the fullest description desired can be given. 



painter 4. 


painted 5. 


my 6. 


n. cc. m. s. 


v. r.t. c. nd. pst. 3s. 


pro. pr. m. Is. pos. 


a. 2. lcpx. ap. 


P.2. lcpx. 


a. 7. Ism. 


very 10. 


recently. 11. 


Prin. Parts of No. 5. 


ad. in. 


ad. tm. 


5) paint, painted, 


ad. 11. Ism. 


ad. 5. tm. lcpx. 


painted. 


gave 4. 


me 5. 


a 6. 


v. ir.t. c. nd. pst.3s. 


pro. pr. c. Is. ob. 


ia. 


P.3. lcpx. 


ob. 4. ndi. Ism. 


a. 9 Ism. 


at 10. 


Christmas. 11. 




prep. 


n. abs. n. s. 


Prin. Parts of No. 4. 


11. 


ad. 4. 2sm. 


4) give, gave, given. 


horses 4. 


been 5. 


found? 9. 


n. cc. c. pi. 


aux. 9. 


v. ir.t. pas. ntr. prsp. 
P.4. Ism. 


S.6. lcpx. 




are 4. 


you 5. 


engaged? 6. 


aux. 6. 


pro. pr. c. 2pl. nm. 


v. r.t. pas. ntr. prs. 




S.6. Ism. 


P.5. lcpx. 


did 4. 


you 5. 


see 6. 


aux. 6. 


pro. pr. c. 2pl. nm. 


v. ir.t. em. ntr. pst. 




S. 6. Ism. 


P.5 lcpx 


on 12. 


the 11. 


island? 12. 


prep. 


da. 


n. cc. n. s. 


12. 


a. 12. Ism. 


a. 9. 2cpx. 


you 4. 


visit 5. 


yesterday 6. 


pro. pr. c. 2pl. nm. 


v. r.t. e. ntr. pst. 2pl. 


ad. tm. 


S.5. Ism. 


P.4. lcpx. 


ad. 5. Ism. 


in 10. 


the 11. 


city? 12. 


prep. 


da. 


n. cc. n. s. 


12. 


a. 12. Ism. 


a. 9. 2cpx. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Models. — Continued. 



7 


He 1. 


seems 2. 


to think 3. 


sm. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. nm. 


v. r.i. c. nd. prs. 3s. 


inf. prs. ir.t. cm. 


ass. 


S.2. Ism. 


P. 1. lcpx. 


ob. 2. att. lcpx. 




in 7. 


his 8. 


case. 9. 




prep. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. pos. 


n. abs. n. s. 




9. 


a. 9. Ism. 


ad. 6. mr. 


8 


The 1. 


indolent 2. 


man 3. 


sm. 


da. 


a. cm. pos. 


n. cc, m. s. 


ass. 


a. 3. Ism. 


a. 3. Ism. 


S.4. lcpx. 


9 


To have 1. 


acquired 2. 


the 3. 


sm. 


aux. 2. 


inf. per. r.t. cm. 
S. 8. lcpx. 


da. 


ass. 




a. 4. Ism. 




will 7. 


afford 8. 


you 9. 




aux. 8. 


v. r.t. c. nd. fut. 3s. 


pro. pr. c. 2pl. ob. 






P.2. lcpx. 


ob. 8. ndi. Ism. 


10 


To be 1. 


doing 2. 


something 3. 


sm. 


aux. 2. 


inf. prs. ir.t. pgr. 


n. abs. n. s. 


ass 




S. 9. lcpx. 


ob. 2. di. lcpx. 




the 7. 


constant 8. 


aim 9. 




da. 


a. cm. pos. 


n. abs. n. s. 




a. 9. Ism. 


a. 9. Ism. 


P.2. 2cpx. 


11 


Caesar 1. 


having 2. 


crossed 3. 


sm 


n. pr. m. s. 


aux. 3. 


p. pper. r.t. cm. 


ass. 


np. 3. 




np. 1. ad. 7. 2cpx. 




fled 7. 


across 8. 


the 9. 




v. ir.i. c. nd. pst. 3s. 


prep. 


da, 




P.6. lcpx. 


10. 


a. 10. Ism. 


12 


There 1. 


will 2. 


be 3. 


sm. 


*ad. 


aux. 3. 


v. ir.i. c. nd. fut. 3s. 


ass. 






cop. n. 




of 7. 


vessels 8. 


on 9. 




prep. 


n. cc. n, pi. 


prep. 




8. 


a. t>.2sm. 


11. 


13 


My 1. 


long 2. 


expected 3. 


sm. 


pro. pr. c. Is. pos. 


ad. tm. pos. 


p. per. r.t. cm. 


ass. 


a. 4. Ism. 


ad. 3. Ism. 


a. 4. Ism. 


14 


It 1. 


is 2. 


painful 3. 


sm. 


pro. pr. n. 3s. nm. 


v. ir.i. end. prs. 3s . 


a. cm. pos. 


ass. 


S.3. lcpx. 


cop. 3. 


P. 1. 2sm. 




loss 7. 


of 8. 


SO 9. 




n. abs. n. s. 


prep. 


ad. in. 




ad. 4. 2cpx. 


11, 12, 14. 


ad. 10 Ism. 




and 13. 


wealth 14. 


by 15. 




con. 11, 12-14. 


n. cc. n. s. 1 a. 7. 2cpx. 


prep. 16. 



*The word, there, used as above, is called an adverb, though too peculiar in this 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Models. — Continued. 



197 



the 4. 

da. 
a. 5. Ism. 


rule 5. 

n. abs. n. s. 
ob. 3 di. lcpx. 


inapplicable 6. 

a. cm. pos. 
ob. 3. att. lcpx. 


3) think, thought, 
thought. 


6 (sentence 5.) see, 
saw, seen. 


6 (sen. 3) find, 
found, found. 


seeks 4. 


to avoid 5. 


labor. 6. 


v. ir.t. c. nd. prs. 3s. 
P.3. lcpx. 


inf. prs. r.t. cm. 
ob. 4. 6^. lcpx. 


n. abs. n. s. 
ob. 5 di. 


art 4. 


of 5. 


drawing 6. 


n. abs. n. s. 
ob. 2. di. lcpx. 


prep. 
6. 


n. abs. n. s. 
a. 4. 2sm. 


great 10. 

a. cm. pos. 
a. 11. Ism. 


pleasure. 11. 

n. abs. n. s. 
ob. 8. di. lcpx, 


8) afford, afforded, 
afforded. 


useful 4. 


should 5. 


be 6. 


a. cm. pos. 
a. 3. Ism. 


aux. 6. 


v. ir.i. c. tnd. pst. 3s. 
cop. 9. 


of 10. 


every 11. 


citizen. 12. 


Drep. 
"12. 


a. dis. 
a. 12. Ism. 


n. cc. c. s. 
a. 9. 2cpx. 


the 4. 


Kubicon, 5. 


Pompey 6. 


da. 

a. 5, Ism. 


n. pr. n. s. 
ob. 3. di. lcpx. 


n. pr. m. s. 
S.7. Ism. 


Adriatic 10. 


into 11. 


Greece. 12. 


n. pr. n. s. 
ad. 7. pic. 2cpx. 


prep. 
12. 


n. pr. n. s. 
ad. 7. dIc. 2sm. 


a 4. 


great 5. 


number 6. 


ia. 
a. 6. Ism. 


a. cm. pos. 
a. 6. Ism. 


n. col. n. s. 
S.ll. lcpx. 


the 10. 


lake. 11. 




da. 
a. 11. Ism. 


n. cc. n. s. 
P..6. 2cl. cpx. 


3) be or am, was. been . 


friends 4. 


are 5. 


here. 6. 


n. cc. c. pi. 
S.6. lcpx. 


v. ir.i. c. nd. prs. 
cop. 6. 


ad. pic. 
P. 4. 2sm. 


to think 4. 


of 5. 


the 6. 


inf. prs. ir.i. c. 
a. 1. lcpx. ap. 


prep. 7. 


da. 
a. 7. Ism. 


much 10. 

a. def. 
a. 11, 12, 14. 


health, 11. 

n. abs. n. s. 
a. 7. 2cpx. 


; strength 12. 

n. abs. n. s. 
a. 7.2cpx. 


intemperance. 16. 

n. abs. n. s. I a. 7.2sm. 


2) be, was, been. 


5) think, thought, thought. 



use, to rank under any one of the enumerated classes of adverbs. 



198 



ENGLISH GRAMMA B. 

Models. — Continued. 



15 


Laboring 1. 


in 2. 


the 3. 


sm. 


ger. prs. r.i. c. 


prep. 


da. 


ass. 


S.ll. lcpx. 


4. 


a. 4. Ism. 




weather 7. 


is 8. 


a 9. 




n. abs. n. s. 


v. ir.i. c. nd. prs. 


ia. 




ad. l.tm. 2cpx. 


cop. 11. 


a. 11. Ism. 


16 


The 1. 


crime 2. 


of 3. 


sm. 


da. 


n. abs. n. s. 


prep. 


ass. 


a. 2. Ism. 


S.8. lcpx. 


6. 




was 7. 


purloining 8. 


money 9. 




v. ir.i. e. nd. pst. 


ger. prs. r.t. c. 


n. cc. n. s. 




cop. 8. 


P.2. 2cpx. 


ob. 8. di. Ism. 


17 


He 1. 


obtained 2. 


pardon 3. 


sm. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. n. 


v. r.t. c. nd. pst. 


n. abs. n. s. 


ass. 


S.2. Ism. ntp. 


P.l.lcpx. 


ob. 2. di. Ism. 




officers 7. 


of 8. 


his 9. 




n. co. m. pi. 


prep. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. pos. 




ob. 5. di. lcpx. 


11. 


a. 11. Ism. 


18 


The 1. 


thought 2. 


of 3. 


sm. 


da. 


n. abs. n.s. 


prep. 


ass. 


a. 2. Ism. 


S.8. lcpx. 


5. 




be 7. 


sufficient 8. 


to enlist 9. 




v. ir.i. tnd. pst. 


a. cm. pos. 


inf. prs. r.t. cm. 




cop. 8. 


P.2. 2cpx. 


ad. 8. in. lcpx. 


19 


His 1. 


having 2. 


been 3. 


sm. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. pos. 


aux. 3. 


ger. pper. 2cl.5. 


ass. 


a. 5. Ism. 




cop. 5. 




proved 7. 


a 8. 


ground 9. 




v. r.i. c. nd. pst. 


ia. 


n. abs. n. s. 




P.5. lcpx. 


a. 9. Ism. 


ob. 7. att. lcpx. 


20 


To be 1. 


intelligent 2. 


and 3. 


sm. 


inf. prs. ir.i. 2cl. 2. 


a. c. pos. 2cl. nf. 1. 


con. cpl. 


ass. 


cop. 2, 5. 


S. 8. 2cl. cpd. 5. 


2-5. 




the 7. 


means 8. 


of 9. 




da. 


n. abs. n. s. 


prep. 




a. 8. Ism. 


P.2. 5. 2cl. cpx. 


12. 


21 


Study 1. 


(thou) 2. 


nature 3. 


cpx. 


v. r.t. c. imp. 2s. 




n. cc. n. s. 


imp. 


P. 2. lcpx. 




ob. 1. di. lcpx. 




phenomena 7. 


, are 8. 


all 9. 




n. abs. n. pi. 


v. ir.i. c. nd. prs. 


a. def. 




S.ll. lcpx. cpd. 5. 


cop. 11. 


a. 5. 7. Ism. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Models. — Continued. 



199 



field 4. 


in 5. 


good 6. 


n. ce. n. s. 
ad. 1. pic. 2cpx. 


prep. 

7. 


a. cm. pos. 
a. 7. Ism. 


healthy 10. 

a. cm. pos. 
a. 11. Ism. 


employment 11. 

n. abs. n. s. 
P.l. 2cpx. 


8) be, was, been. 


the 4. 


young 5. 


clerk 6. 


da. 
a. 6. Ism. 


a. cm. pos. 
a. 6. Ism. 


n. cc. m. s. 
a. 2. 2cpx. 


from 10. 


his 11. 


employer. 12. 


prep. 
12. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. pos. 
a. 12. Ism. 


n. cc. m. s. 
ad. 8. mr. 2cpx. 


by 4. 


satisfying 5. 


the 6. 


prep. 
5. 


ger. prs. r. t. c. 
ad. 2. ca. 2cpx, 


da. 

a. 7. Ism. 


earnest 10. 


determination 11. 


to reform 12. 


a. cm. pos. 
a. 11. Ism. 


n. abs. n. s. 
ad. 5. mr. 2cpx. 


inf. prs. r.i. c. 
a. 11. Ism. 


being 4. 


good 5. 


should 6. 


ger. prs. 2cl. 5. 
cop. 5. 


a. c. pos. 2cl. ger. 4. 
a. 2. 2sm. 


aux. 7. 


one's 10. 


full 11. 


energy 12. 


pro. a. pos. 
a. 12. Ism. 


a. cm. pos. 
a. 12. Ism. 


n. abs. n. s. 
ob. 9. di. lcpx. 


a 4. 


criminal 5. 


before 6. 


ia. 
a. 5. Ism. 


n. cc. m. s. 2cl. gr. 
S.7. 2cpx. 


ad. tm. 
ad. 3. tm. 


of 10. 

prep. 
11. 


suspicion. 11 

n. abs. n. s. 
a. 9. 2sm. 


3) be, was, been. 
7) prove, proved, proved. 


truly 4. 


virtuous 5. 


is 6. 


ad. sr. 
ad. 5. Ism. 


a. c. ps. 2cl. nf. 1. 
S.8. 2cl. cpd. 2. 


v. ir.i. nd. prs. 3s. 
cop. 8. 


the 10. 


highest 11. 


enjoyment 12. 


da. 
a. 12. Ism. 


a. cm. sup. 
a. 12. Ism. 


n. abs. n. s. 
a. 8. 2cpx. 


whose 4. 


laws 5. 


and 6. 


pro. rel. n. 3s. pos. 
a. 5, 7. Ism. nt. 3. 


n. abs. n. pi. 
S.ll. lcpx. cpd. 7. 


con. cpl. 
5-7. 


deeply 10. 


interesting. 11. 




ad. in. 
ad. 11. Ism. 


a. cm. pos. 
P.5, 7. 2x. | a. 3. *3cpx. 


1) study, studied, studied. 
8) be, was, been. 



*Under the base of the predicate of a subordinate proposition, are two sets of 
abbreviations. Those on ths left give its relation in the subordinate clause; 
those on the right the relation of that clause to some word in the principal propo- 
sition. 



200 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Models. — Continued. 



22 


Hypocrisy 1. 


is 2. 


a 3. 


cpx. 


n. abs. n. s. 


v. ir.i. c. nd. prs. 


ia. 


ass. 


S.4. Ism. 


cop. 4. 


a. 4. Ism. 




that 7. 


vice 8. 


pays 9. 




pro. rel. n. 3s. ob. 


n. abs. n. s. 


v. ir.t. c. nd. prs. 3s. 




ob. 9. di. Ism. nt. 4. 


S.9.1sm. . 


P.8. lx. | a. i. 3cpx. 


23 


He I. 


will 2. 


tell 3. 


cpx. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. nm. 


aux. 3. 


v. ir.t. c. nd. fut. 3s. 


ass. 


S.3. Ism. 




P.l. lcpx. 




shalt 7. 


do 8. 


in 9. 




aux. 8. 


v. ir.t. c. nd. fut. 2s. 


prep. 






P.(j. lcpx. 


11. 


24 


Whatsoever 1. 


God 2. 


hath 3. 


cpx. 


pro. rel. & nt. n. s. 


n. pr. m. s. 


aux. 4. 


imp. 


ob. 7. di. | ob. 4. di. 


S.4. Ism. 






do 7. 


(thou) 8. 


in 9. 




v. ir.t. c. imp. 2s. 




prep. 




P. 8. lcpx. 




11. 


25 


Whichsoever 1. 


course 2. 


he 3. 


cpx. 


pro. rel. as, a. 


n. abs. n. s. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. n. 


ass. 


a. 2. Ism. 


S.6. ix. | ob. 4. di. 


S.4. Ism. 




him 7. 


in 8. 


trouble 9. 




pro. pr. m. 3s. o. 


prep. 


n. abs. n. s. 




ob. 6. Ism. 


9. 


ad. 6. mr. 2sm. 


26 


What 1. 


is 2. 


wanted 3. 


cpx 


pro. rel. & nt. n. 3s. 


aux. 3. 


v. r.t. pas. nd. prs. 3s. 


ass. 


S. 9. lcpx. | S.3. Ism. 




P.l. lcpx. | S 9. 3x. 




will 7. 


be 8. 


furnished 9. 




aux. 8. 


aux. 9. 


v. r.t. pas. nd. fu.. 3s. 
P.l. lcpx. 








27 


We 1. 


are 2. 


troubled 3. 


cpx. 


pro. pr. c. lpl. nm. 


aux. 3. 


v. r.t. pas. nd. prs. lpl. 


ass. 


S.3. Ism. 




P.l. lcpx. 




has 7. 


said 8. 


to 9. 




aux. 8. 


v. ir.t. c. nd. prsp. 3s. 


prep. 






P.6. lcpx. 


10. 


28 


The 1. 


farmer 2. 


had 3. 


cpx. 


da. 


n. cc. m. s. 


v. ir.t. e. nd. pst. 3s. 


uss. 


a. Ism. 


S.3. lcpx. 


P.2. lcpx. 




(the) 7. 


(quantity) 8. 


(was) 9. 



. Rem .—Words not expresped in a sentence, but understood, are inclosed in par- 
enthesis, and not parsed further than needful to explain others. 

*The marks rel. & nt. show that the antecedent is included in the same word 
with the relative. 

tThe word, what, used as above, is an element in the principal proposition and 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



201 



Models. — Continued. 



sort 4. 


of 5. 


homage 6. 


n. abs, n, s. 
P. 1. 2cpx. 


prep. 
6. 


n. abs. n. s. 
a. 4. 2sm. 


to 10. 

prep. 
11. 


virtue. 11. 

n. abs. n. s. 
ob. 9. ndi. 2sm. 


(virtue is ndi. ob. because 

personified.) 

9) pay, paid, paid. 


thee 4. 


what 5. 


thou 6. 


pro. pr. c. 2s. ob. 
ob. 3. ndi. Ism. 


pro. rel. & nt.* n. 
ob. 3. di. | ob. 8 di.t 


pro. pr. c. 2s. nm. 
S.8. Ism. 


his 10. 


service. 11. 




pro. pr. m. 3s. pos, 
a. 11. Ism. 


n. abs. n. s. 
ad. 8. mr. 2cpx. 


3) tell, told, told. 
8) do, did, done. 


said 4. 


unto 5. 


thee 6. 


v. ir.t. c. nd. prsp. 3s. 
P.2. lcpx. 


prep. 
6. 


pro. pr. c. 2s. ob. 
ob. 4. ndi. 2sm. 


confiding 10. 

a. cm. pos. 
a. 11. Ism. 


faith. 11. 

n. abs. n. s. 
ad. 7. mr. 2cpx. 


4)say, said, said. 
7) do, did, done. 


takes 4. 


will 5. 


involve 6. 


v. ir.t. c. nd. prs. 3s. 
P.3. lcpx. 


aux. 6. 


v. r.t. c. nd. fut. 3s. 
P.2. lcpx. 


without 10. 


relief. 11. 




prep. 
11. 


n. abs. n. s. 
ad. 6. mr.2sm. 


4) take, took, taken. 


for 4. 


an 5. 


outfit 6. 


prep. 
0. 


ia. 
a. 6. Ism. 


n. cc. n. s. 
ad. 3. ca. 2cpx. 


by 10. 


the 11. 


government. 12. 


prep. 
12. 


da 
a. 12. Ism. 


n. cc. n. s. 
ad. 9. ca. 2cpx. 


concerning 4. 

prep. 
5. 


what 5. 

pro. rel. & nt. s. 
ad. 3. ca. | ob. 8. di. 


he 6. 

pro. pr. m. 3s. nm. 

S. 8. Ism. 


US 10. 






pro. pr. c. Ipl. ob. 
ob. 8. ndi. 2sm. 




2) be, was, been. 
8) say, said. said. 


less 4. 


hay 5. 


than 6. 


a. cm. cmp. 
a. 5. Ism. 


n. cc. n. s. 
ob. 3. di. lcpx. 


con. sbr. 
3-9. 


(which) 10. 


he 11. 

pro. pr. m. 3s. nm. 
S.12. Ism. 


expected. 12. 

v. r.t. end. pst. 3s. 
P.ll. Ism. 



in the subordinate; on the left of a perpendicular line is described its relation in 
the principal proposition, and on the right its relation in the subordinate; so. of 
other words of double reference. But the pupil will observe that under the simple 
predicate of a clause, its relation in the principal proposition is described on the 
rigid hand, not the left. 



202 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Models. — Continued. 



29 


If 1. 


you 2. 


Will 3. 


epx. 
ass. 


con. sbr. 
5-10. 


pro. pr. c. 2pl. n. 
S.5. Ism. 


aux. 5. 




me 7. 


I 8. 


will 9. 




pro. pr. c. Is. ob« 
ad. 5. pic. 2sm. 


pro. pr. c. Is. n. 
S.10. Ism. 


aux. 10. 


30 


Being 1. 


only 2. 


dust 3. 


sm. 

imp. 


p. prs. ir.i. c. 2cl. 3. 
cop. 3. 


ad. in. 
ad. 1. in. Ism. 


n. cc. n. s. p. 2cl. 1. 
a. 5. 2cpx. 


31 


That 1. 


my 2. 


friend 3. 


cpx. 

ass. 


con. sbr. 
5-11. 


pro. pr. c. Is. pos. 
a. 3. Ism. 


n. cc. c. s. 
S.5. lepx. 




season 7. 


to go 8. 


is 9. 




n. abs. n. s. 
ad. 5. tm. 2cpx. 


inf. prs. ir.i. c. 
a 7. Ism. 


v. ir.i. c. nd. prs. 
cop. 11. 


32 


Either 1. 


the 2. 


world 3. 


cpd. 
ass. 


con. crl. 7. altr. 
4-9. 


da. 
a. 3. Ism. 


n. cc. n.'s. 
S.4. lepx. 




or 7. 


it 8. 


exists 9. 




con. altr. 
4-9. 


pro. pr. n. 3s. nm. 
S.9. Ism. 


v. r.i. c. nd. prs. 3s. 
P.8. lepx. 


33 


Though 1. 


the 2. 


Lord 3. 


cpx. 

ass. 


con. sbr. crl. 6. 

5-7. 


da. 
a. 3. Ism. 


n. pr. m. s. 
S.5. lepx. 




hath 7. 


he 8. 


respect 9. 




v. ir.t. end. prs. 3s. 
P.8. lepx. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. nm. 
S.7. Ism. 


n. abs. n s. 
ob. 7, di. Ism. 


34 


Could 1. 


I 2. 


have 3. 


cpx. 

ass. 


aux. 4. 


pro. pr. c. Is. nm. 
S.4. Ism. 


aux. 4. 




I 7. 


should 8. 


have 9. 




pro. pr. c. Is. nm. 
S.10. Ism. 


aux. 10. 


aux. 10. 


35 


(Him) 1. 


"Whom 2. 


he 3. 


cpx. 
ass. 




pro. rel. m. 3s. ob. nt.l. 
ob. 4. di. Ism. 


pro. pr. m. 3s. nm. 
JS.4. Ism. 

is 3. 


36 


To be 1. 


dishonest 2. 


sm. 

ass. 


inf. prs. 2ol. 2. 
cop. 2. 


a. cm. 2el. inf. 1. • 
S. 6. 2sm. 


v. ir.t. nd. prs. 3s. 
cop. t). 


37 


Those 1. 


means 2. 


of 3. 


cpx. 
ass_ 


a. dm. pi. 
a. 2. Ism. 


n. cc. n. pi. 
S.8. lepx. 


prep. 
4. 




were 7. 


what 8. 


we 9. 




v. ir.i. c. nd. pst. 3pl. 
cop. 8. 


pro. rel. &nt. 3pl. 
P.2. 2cpx. | ob. 11. di. 


pro. pr. c. Ipl.nm. 
8.11. Ism. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Models. — Continued. 



203 



not 4. 


come 5. 


to 6. 


ad. 


v. ir.i. c. nd. fut. 2pl. 


prep. 


ad. 5. sr. 


P.2. lcpx. 


7. 


go 10. 


to 11. 


you. 12. 


V. ir.i. c. nd. fut. Is. 


prep. 


pro. pr. c, 2pl. ob. 


F. 8. lcpx. 


12. 


ad. 10. pic. 2sm. 


be 4. 


(thou) 5. 


humble. 6. 


v. ir.i. c. imp. prs. 2s. 




a. com. pos. 


cop. (i. 




P.5. 2sm. 


will 4. 


return 5. 


in 6. 


aux. 5. 


v. r.i. c. nd. fut. 3s. 


prep. 




P.3. lcpx. I S.ll. 3cpx. 


7. 


very 10. 


uncertain. 11. 


The no. of the base of a 
prop'n is taken to repre- 


ad. in. 


a. cm. pos. 


sent the prop'n. as, 5-11 


ad. 11. Ism. 


P,5. 2c px. 


under the conj. that, and 5 
under uncertain. 


had 4. 


a 5. 


Creator 6. 


v. ir.t. c. nd. pst. 3s. 


ia. 


n. cc. m. s. 


P,3. lcpx. 


a. 6. Ism. 


ob. 4. lcpx. 


by 10. 


chance. 11. 




prep. ■ 


n. abs. n. s. 


4) have, had, had. 


11. 


ad. 9. ca. 2sm. 


9) exist, existed, existed. 


be 4. 


high 5. 


yet 6. 


v. ir.i. c. sub. prs. 3s. 


a. cm. pos. 


con. sbr. 


cop. 5. 


P. 3. 2sm. 


5-7. 


unto 10. 


the 11. 


lowly. 12. 


prep. 


da. 


a. (as, n.) cc. c. pi. 


12. 


a. 12. Ism. 


ob. 7. ndi. 2cpx. 


anticipated 4. 


such 5. 


misfortune 6. 


v. r.t. c. tsub. pstp. Is. 


a. def. 


n. abs. n. s. 


P.2. lcpx. | ad. ca. 10. 


a. 6. Ism. 


ob. 4. di. lcpx. 


avoided 10. 


the 11. 


disaster. 12. 


v. r.t. c. tnd. pstp. Is. 


da. 


n. abs. n. s. 


P.7. lcpx. 


a. 12. Ism. 


ob. 10. di. lcpx. 


loveth 4. 


he 5. 


chasteneth." 6. 


v. r.t. c. nd. prs. 3s. 


pro, pr. m. 3s. nm. 


v. r.t. c. nd. prs.3s. 


P.3. lcpx. 


S.6. Ism. 


P.5. lcpx. 


not 4. 


being 5. 


honest. 6. 


ad. sr. 


ger. prs. 2cl. with 6. 


a. cm. pos. 2cl. ger. 5. 


ad. 5. Ism. 


cop. 6. 


P.2. 2cpx. 


enlarging 4. 


our 5. 


business 6. 


ger. prs. r.t. cm. 


pro. pr. c. Ipl. pos. 


n. abs. n. s. 


a. 2. 2cpx. 


a. 6. Ism. 


ob, 4. di. lcpx. 


particularly 10. 


desired. 11. 




ad. in. pos. 


v. r.t. c. nd pst. Ipl. 


7) be, was, been. 


ad. 11. in. Ism. 


P.9. lcpx. 


11) desire, desired, desired. 



INDEX. 



205 



INDEX. 



This index is based on a topical arrangement of contents: designed also as a 
Guide in a Topical Keview, after the whole book has been well studied in its 
course. 



Sec. Page. 

Preface 1 

Introduction 3 

A word to the teacher 5 

Explanation of arrangement. 6 

Brief general view 333 94 

Parts of speech 333 94 

Grammar defined 331 94 

Eng. Grammar 335 94 

Usually in 4 divis'ns 335 94 

This Treatise confined to 

Etymology and Sy tax 336 95 

Noun. 

Noun defined 2 9 

Classes of nouns 7 10 

Proper noun 8 10 

Common noun 9 10 

Abstract noun. 10 10 

Concrete noun 11 10 

Patrial noun 13 11 

Collective noun 14 11 

Materialnoun 15 11 

Nouns requir'g capitals 16 12 

Gender 18-22 12 

Sex distinguished 23 13 

Number 35-28 13 

Rules forplural 29,30 14 

Exceptions to rules 31 14 

Having no plurals, etc 32 15 

Possessive form of nouns 34,35 16 

Nearly allnouns3d pers 166,167 50 

Case for nouns useless 168 50 

Adjectives. 

Adjective defined 37 18 

Classes of adjectives 38 18 

Descriptive adjectives 39,40 18 

Proper adjectives 41 18 

Common adjectives 42 18 

Definitive adjectives 44 19 

Sub-classes of definitives 45 19 

Articles 46-48 19 

Demonstratives 49 19 

Distributives 50 19 

Numerals 51-54 21 

Other def. adjectives 55 21 

Noun as adjective 56 21 

Adj. mod. a phrase 57 21 

Comparison of adj 60-66 22 

Irreg. comparison 67 23 

Not admitting comp 68,69 24 

Bel. andinterrog. adjectives. 568-570 162 



Sec. Pago. 
Pronouns. 

Pronoun defined ; 140 43 

Use illustrated 141 43 

Antecedent of pro 142 41 

Grammatical person 144-146 45 

Personal pronouns 147, 148 46 

Properties of pers. pro 149 46 

Cases of p ronouns 150-1 53 46 

Declension of pers. pro 156 47 

Mine, thine, ours, etc 157 48 

How used 462 133 

Pro. agrees with antec 158 48 

Howits cases are used 15S 48 

Comp'd pers. pronouns 159-163 48 

Pro. you always plural 164 50 

Obs.onpro.of lstand2d pers. 165 50 

Adjective pronouns 457 l:->2 

Beciprocal pronouns 459-461 13:5 

Interrogative pronouns 416,417 119 



Relative Pronouns. 

Defined and explained 538-510 157 

Pers. andnum. as antec 541-543 157 

What words are relatives 547 158 

Who, explained 544-546 158 

Which , expl ained .549, 550 159 

That, explained 551-553 159 

What, explained 554-560 160 

Antec. of rel. where found 561 161 

Compound relatives 562-567 161 

Bel. and interrog. adjectives. 568-570 162 



Verb. 

Note, for teachers „ 72 25 

Preliminary remarks 72 25 

Definition 73 26 

Gen. statement 74 26 

Finite verb and subject 76,77 27 

Different forms for num 78,79 27 

Boot of the verb. 80,81 28 

Auxiliary verb defined 82 28 

Trans, verb and object 86-88 29 

Illustration 89 30 

Intransitive verb 90 30 

Verbs used in both classes... 91. 31 

Some trans, without action.. 92 31 

Ferson of the verb 170 51 

Table simp, tenses reg. verb. 171 51 

Pers. and num. of the verb . . .172-175 52 



206 



INDEX. 



Verb, To be. 






Tenses. 








Sec. Page. 




Sec. Page. 


Yerb, to be, as copula 


182 
183 


55 
56 


Tense defined 


286 

287 


W 


Inflection of its sim. tenses.. 


Tenses of dif. modes 


82 


Predicate with copula 


.185-188 


56 


Simp, and comp'd tenses 


288 


82 


Pred. noun or pronoun 


189 


57 








Pred. and attributive adjec 


- 










tive 

Pred. noun or adj. mod 


190 
.192,193 


bV 
58 


Explanation of Tense. 










I. Pres. past and fut.pu. ind. 
Significati'n Emph. Form 
Root of the verb, to be... 


.290-292 


82 


Parts of the Verb. 




293 
294 


83 
83 


Mean'g of prin'l verb 


218 


63 


II. Pres. per. past per. fut 
per 

III. Tenses pot. indie 

IV. Tenses interr. modes. . . 


.298-304 
.307-312 
.316-319 


84 
86 
89 




219 


63 


Which are prin'l parts 


220 


64 


How to tell prin'l parts 


223 


64 


V. Imp. mode and term of 




List of 20 irreg. verbs 


225 


65 


address 


322-327 


90 


Inflection of their sim. tenses 


226 


6b 








Full list of irreg. verbs 


.337-340 


95 










.341 344 
.230,231 


98 
67 


Participles. 






Conjugation explained 




Conjugations reg. and irreg. 
Inflections of prin'l verbs — 


.232, 233 
234 


68 
68 


Participle defined 


196 
197 


59 


Three part. Com. Form 


b9 










.198-199 


59 


Auxiliary Verbs. 




Perfect participle 

Preperfect participle 


.200-202 
.204-20b 


60 
61 




.235, 236 


68 


Participles, how modified.. - 


.206-208 


61 


Conjugation of aux. ver 


.237-243 


69 


Differ from finite verb or adj. 209, 210 


62 


Observations on aux 


244 


71 


Prog, and pas. part, in use.. 


3t>4 


10b 


Classification of aux 


.245-247 


71 








Import of pot. aux 


.218-250 


72 














Infinitive of the Verb. 




Gen. forms of the Verb 


253 


73 


Infinitive defined 


428 


122 








In what Gen. Forms found . 


429 


122 


Specific forms, how classed. 


254 


73 


Pres. and per. inf. Com. Form 430 


123 


Com. Gen. Form 


256 


73 


Inf. of Prog, and Pas. Forms 


431 


123 




257 


V4 




.433,434 


IttH 


Progressive Form 


259 


74 








Its signification 


348 


100 








Passive Form 


260 


V4 


Classified exer. with 




Act. and pas. voice. 


.353-356 


102 








Pas. form of intran s. v 


357,358 


102 


I. Infinitive as subject 


437 


L24 


Act. voice changed to pas... 


359 


]<>3 


II. Infinitive with cop 


439 


124 


Pas. voice changed to act... 


360 


103 


III. Infinitive di. object — 
with several remarks 


441 


12b 
126 








IV. Inf. as attr. object 


443 


127 


Modes. 






V. Inf. as adj. element 


44b 


128 








VI. Inf. as advl. element — 


447 


128 


Modes defined and named . . 


263 


75 


VII. Inf. modif'g adjective. 


449 


1.9 


Indicative modes 


.264-268 


75 


VIII. Inf. without particle, to 4bl 


130 


Interrogative modes 


.269-273 


76 








Imperative mode 


.274,275 


77 








Subjunctive mode defined... 


600 


174 


Adverbs. 








604 
.605,606 


IVb 
175 


Adverb defined 


. 114 




Of anv C Form except to be. 


36 


Subj. mode of to be and prog. 




Examples in VI. classes 


.115-120 


36 


and pas. forms 


607 


1,6 


Words yes, yea, no, nay 


121 


37 




608 


176 


The adverb not 

A few words adj. or adv 


122 


38 


Potential subjunctive 


609 


177 


123 


38 


Obs. or subj. mode 


610 


177 


Adv. by annex'g ly 

Adverbs compared 


124 


38 


Subj. tense* regarding time 


.612-614 


177 


.12b, 126 


38 


How this affects their use.. 


613 


178 








Table of Conjugations. 




Prepositions. 








.279,280 
319 


78 
89 
80 
80 


Preposition defined 

Object of preposition 


131 
132 
133 


40 


Interr. modes recited for ind 


40 
40 


Imperative mode 

Infinitives and participles... 


'. 284 


Use illustrated 


.134-137 


41 



INDEX, 



207' 



Conjunctions 

and other connectiv 


» 

es. 

Sec. P 
.592.593 
.104,594 
d 
.104-112 

595 
596 

Sam 

597 
598 

. 329 

330 

.324-327 

iction. 

76 

. 88.89 

132 

162 

? 167 

.185-188 

189 

190 

.367-370 
371 

.372-374 
375 
376 
377 

. 378 
379 

.381, 382 
383 
386 
387 
38S 
3X9 
39ii 

.392, 2! 13 
:*>4 

395 396 


ige. 
172 
172 

84 

172 
172 
e. 
172 
173 

92 
93 
91 

27 
30 
40 
49 
50 
56 
57 
57 

106 
107 
107 
108 
108 
108 
108 
109 
109 
109 
110 
110 
110 
110 
HI 
112 
1V2 
11! 
lli 
115 

115 

118 
119 
119 
119 
120 
120 
121 
121 


Gerund. 

Gerund defined 


Sec. P 
.506-509 
511 
512 
513 
514 
515-517 

pics. 

3 454 
455 
468-474 
.483-492 
493 
,49«-499 
.500-503 

.477-480 

es, P 
nds. 

520 
.521-527 
529 
530 
531 
532 
533 

573 

;ed. 

574 
575 

576 

577 
578 
579 
. 580 
581 
582 
584 
585 
586 

587 

588 
589 
590 
591 

tences 

615 
616 
617 
618 
619 


age. 
146 


What they consist of 


I. As subject of prop't'n 

II. Predicate with cop 

III. Director attr. object 

IV. Object of preposition... 
Further explained 

Supplementary To 

Nouns of weight, measure, et< 
Like, nitrh, near, how mod... 

En-pe (np.) element 

Idiomatic use of it and there. 

"Laughed at." "sentfor" 

Use of shall and will 


147 

147 


Some con'ect words an 
phrases 

Coor. propositions and ek 
how connected 


147 
148 
148 


Subord. propositions how... 

Rem. on t?iat,as conj 

Rel. pronouns connect 

Some adverbs connect 

Interjections. 


131 
131 
135 
139 
141 
14^ 


Interjection defined 


Indirect obj . made sbj 

Second Class Predi 
cates 

Second Class Infinite 
ticiples and Geru 

Defined 

Illustration of 

I. Sec'd cl. infinitives 

II. Sec'd cl. participles 


143 


Words that are interj 


Term of address 




Some ele. of Constri 

Subject of a verb 

Direct object 

Object of a preposition 

Apposition defined 

When is a noun 1st or 2d per. 

Predicate with copula 

Pred. noun or pronoun. 

Predicate adjective 


137 

ar- 

151 
151 
152 
153 
154 
154 
155 

164 


Proposition. 

More fully explained 

What constitutes a prop't'n. . 
Enlargement of proposition. 
Definition of phrase 


IV. En-pe ele. with 2d cl. part 
How described in parsing 

Rules of Construction 

Propositions class 

Proposition defined 

Independent proposition..'.. 

Subordinate proposition 

Principal proposition 


An inseparable phrase 


167 
167 


Modification defined 


167 


Higher construction 


167 


Lower construction 




168 


Elements classed by import. 
Principal elements 


Simple proposition 

Compound proposition 

Coordinate propositions 


168 
168 


Three subordinate 


169 


Adjective element 


169 




Substantive proposition 

Adjective proposition 

Adverbial proposition 

Division Cpd. Proposi. 

Copulative combination 

Adversative combination,... 
Alternative combination — 
Causative combination 

Classification of Sen 

Sentence defined 


169 


Objective elements 

Direct object 


170 
170 






Attributive object 

Elements classed by form. . . 

Elements classed by com 

position, sim., cpx. and cpd 

Interrogation 

Form of a question 

Interrogative words 


.397-40(1 
.402-405 

.406-412 

414 

115 

.416,417 

.418,419 

.420.421 

.422,423 

425 

426 


170 

170 
171 
171 
171 




178 




In their composition 


178 






178 


Modern usage Emph. Form . 
Indirect question 


Complex sentence 

Compound sentence 


179 
179 



208 



INDEX. 



Sec. Page. 

In their import 621 179 

Assertive sentence 622 179 

Interrog. sentence 623 179 

Imperative sentence 624 179 

Exclamatory sentence 625 180 

Mixed sentence 626 180 



Selections. 

Thelnquiry 629 182 

Washington's Address to 
Congress 630 183 

Lincoln's Address at Gettys- 
burg 631 184 



See. Page. 

Hints on Punctuation 632 185 

Parsing and Analyzing. 

Parsing orally 179 53 

Parsing and analyzing by 

writing 633 186 

Parsing defined 634 186 

Analyzing defined 635 186 

How to prepare paper and 

write exercises 639-643 187 

Synopsis of Parts of Speech 

and Elements 644-659 189 

Models for beginners 661 192 

Models of complete analysis. 661 194 



INDEX TO EXERCISES. 



Each Exercise Peesents Some Definite Featuee, but is not 
Confined to That. 



Exercise. Page. 

I. Names of different things 10 

II. Classes of nouns 12 

III. Gender 13 

IV. Number 16 

V. Possessive form 17 

VI. Adjective prop, or com 19 

VII. Adjective definitive 22 

XIII. Comparison 24 

IX. Nouns and verbs 29 

X. Trans, and intrans. verbs 31 

XI. Present and past tense 33 

XII. Conj. connecting words 35 

XIII. Adj. distinguished from adv. 38 

XIV. Classes of adverbs 39 

XV. Prepositional phrase. 41 

XVI. Pronouns 3d person 44 

XVII. Pronouns 1st and 2d pers.. 54 
XVT1I. Pred. and attributive adj.. 57 

XIX. Pred. adj. or noun 58 

XX. Participles 62 

XXI. Omitted as unnecessary 

XXII. Irreg. verbs, short Kst . 66 

XXIII. Pres., past and fut. tenses 83 

XXIV. Pres. per., past per., fut. per. 85 

XXV. Tenses pot. mode 88 

XXVI. Tenses interrog, modes ... 89 

XXVII. Imperative mode 92 



Exercise. Page. 

XXVII. Imper. and interjec'n 93 

XXIX. Many irreg. verbs 98 

XXX. Progressive form 100 

XXXI. Passive form 103 

XXXII. Participles prog, and pas. 105 

XXXIII. Adj. and adv. elements.. Ill 

XXXIV. Obj. elements di.ndi. attr. 113 

XXXV. Different elements 117 

XXXVI. Interrogation 121 

XXXVII. Infinitive as subj 124 

XXXVIII. Infinitive with cop 124 

XXXIX. Infinitive direct obj 125 

XL. Infinitive attr. obj 127 

XLI. Infinitive adj. element 128 

XLII. Infinitive advl. element 128 

XLIII. Inf. modifying adj 129 

XL1V. Inf. without to 130 

XLV. Weight; mine, thine, etc., etc. 134 

XLVI En-pe element 136 

XLVII. Various 2cl. predicates... 139 

XL VIII. Idiomatic phrases 141 

XLIX. Shall & will; indi.,obj., sbjt. 144 

L. On Gerunds 148 

LI. Second Class inf., part. etc. .. 155 

LII. Relative pronouns 162 

LIII. Kinds of propositions 173 

LIV. Subj. mode, etc 180 



